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Research Methods in Health > Week 2 & 3 > Flashcards

Week 2 & 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Epidemiological studies look at…

A

how often various health conditions occur in specific populations - quantitative method

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2
Q

Etiology = ______

A

causation

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3
Q

Efficacy = ….?

A

the best possible outcome

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4
Q

Variable = …?

A

measurement that differs across individuals (weight, height, age)

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5
Q

What is an independent variable?

A
  • Treatment or the intervention - often to bring improvement

- Presumed cause, one that you want to test

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6
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A
  • Outcome (of treatment); often what clinician wants to improve
  • Presumed to be affected by the independent variable
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7
Q

Intervention = ….?

A

the researchers do something to bring about change

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8
Q

Which are easier for researchers to do; experimental studies or non-experimental studies?

A

Non-experimental studies (only weakly support causal inferences)

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9
Q

How many groups do experimental designs have?

A

At least two (treatment group, non-treatment/placebo etc group)

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10
Q

The treatment effect = ___ minus _____

A

after minus before (result minus previous status of condition)

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11
Q

A true experimental design has…

A

at least two groups with comparisons on outcomes, and randomly allocated subjects to treatment and control groups.

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12
Q

Observation = ______

A

measurement

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13
Q

In quantitative research, observational studies can include (3)…?

A
  • Descriptive studies (such as survey designs)
  • Correlational studies
  • Designs used in epidemiological research about hazards to health
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14
Q

List of epidemiological observational designs (3)?

A
  • Cohort study
  • Case-control study
  • Screening studies to identify possible health cases for attention
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15
Q

Are single group case series experimental or non experimental?

A

Non-experimental

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16
Q

“any effect that prevents the study conclusions from running true”, “any systematic error in collecting or interpreting data” - are known as…

A

Bias’

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17
Q

Is bias one directional?

A

No, can operate in each direction (overestimating or underestimating effect)

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18
Q

NHMRC levels of evidence hierarchy rank studies from highest quality (______ number) to lowest quality (_____ number)

A

lowest, highest

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19
Q

Level ____ is the best for single studies of interventions (treatments), diagnostic accuracy, etiology, prognosis or screening

A

two

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20
Q

Systematic reviews are level ____ EXCEPT when the studies are…?

A

level 1, except when the studies are a lower quality than level II (e.g. level III or IV)

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21
Q

The higher the number is (or lower the level of quality is) the greater risk of ____

A

bias

22
Q

What are some High-level evidence (low bias risk) study examples ? (4)

A
  • Systematic review superior evidence
  • Intervention studies that are experimental
  • Diagnostic studies
  • Studies that are prospective and cohort designs rather than retrospective or case-control
23
Q

What are some low-level evidence (high bias risk) study examples ? (5)

A
  • Lack of randomisation for intervention study
  • Observational designs (hard to know or control the influence of other factors linked with events of interest)
  • Retrospective - looking backwards in time (outcome already known in study rather than future, risk of sampling bias)
  • Controls not concurrent (different timing could bias results)
  • No controls at all (no comparison conditions)
24
Q

Level II studies are what kind of study?

A

Randomised controlled trials; treatment and concurrent control groups with subjects randomly assigned

25
Q

Level III-1 studies are what kind of study?

A

Controlled trials without truly randomised allocation - treatment and control groups but using an approx random method

26
Q

Level III-2 studies are what kind of study?

A

Comparative study with concurrent control group - control measured concurrently (same time) as intervention but without random allocation to groups

27
Q

Level III-3 studies are what kind of study?

A

Comparative study without concurrent control group - Intervention and control conditions could have occurred at different times

28
Q

Level IV studies have…?

A

Case series with no control group; treatment group only

29
Q

If a study is high NHMRC level, does it mean it’s an all around well-conducted study?

A

Not necessarily; evidence level is study design only, not actual procedures for the study

30
Q

What are other sources of bias in studies that are not counted in the NHMRC level of quality? (4)

A
  • sampling, including attribution
  • measurement errors
  • How intervention are conducted
  • How data analysed and results reported
31
Q

Does the NHMRC levels of evidence apply to all research?

A

No, only quantitative studies

32
Q

Is it possible for a poorly conducted RCT (Level II) to be more biased than a well-conducted comparative study (Level III)?

A

Yes

33
Q

Why reporting quality is important?

A

Research reports may be the only way to know how research is done

  • We rely on research reports to tell us all we need to know
  • Method sections describe design and procedures for that study
34
Q

As humans do we tend to not assume causality or over assume causality?

A

Over assume without really studying it

35
Q

It is more important to know if something causes a reaction or to know if something DOESN’T cause a reaction?

A

Both equally important

36
Q

Is the phrase “after the event, therefore, because of the event” true?

A

It can be the case, but the phrase itself is false. (After does not = due to)

37
Q

inference =

A

a decision or conclusion about truth based on evidence

38
Q

Causal inference =

A

inference about a causal relationship (e.g. treatment causal patients condition to improve)

39
Q

Relations between ideas…

A
  • Can be true or false
  • logical only
  • A triangle can NEVER have four sides
  • Therefore, no reason to research if it can
  • not empirical
40
Q

Matter of fact…

A
  • is empirical
  • known through data and experience
  • about cause and effect, e.g. a virus causes the common cold
41
Q

Three rules of inferring cause and effect (Hume):

A
  1. Contiguity in time and space (same time same place)
  2. Cause precedes effects (Cause first then effect)
  3. Constant conjunction = reliability of cause and effect repeating
42
Q

Can we prove cause and effect (hume)?

A

Can’t be proved because observation alone gives us no way to show that constant conjunction will always happen

43
Q

Is cause and effect an empirical or logical process?

A

Empirical

44
Q

What is a problem with Hume’s theory?

A

We can often infer cause and effect by single experience (touching fire burns you, no need to repeat)

45
Q

Explain Mill’s Method of agreement

A

That the cause is EFFICIENT for the effect (e.g. when it rains, skies are always cloudy–> clouds cause rain)

46
Q

Explain Mill’s Method of difference

A

That cause is NECESSARY for effect (e.g. rain does not occur without clouds; rain occur only with clouds // patient does not improve without treatment)

47
Q

The method of _______ states that the treatment group tests whether patients improve when they have treatment

A

agreement

48
Q

The method of _____ states that the control group tests what happens when patients don’t receive treatment

A

Difference

49
Q

Moderator relationships occur when strength of relationship between two events ….?

A

Depend on another event (e.g. winning more sports medals increases the amount of sponsorship dollars an athlete receive, especially when the medals are gold [[colour of medal magnifies (moderates) relationship between the number of medals won and sponsorship dollars received]]

50
Q

What are the Bradford Hill criteria for establishing causation from evidence? (5)

A
  • Time - sequencing, order of events (Cause always first)
  • Strength of association, correlation
  • Dose-response for clinical trials (Size of dose of treatment matched with size of improvement)
  • Replication of findings
  • Plausibility
51
Q

Aetiology = ….?

A

Cause, including causes of disease and death

Research Methods in Health (12 decks)

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