Week 24: Relationships and Self-Identity Flashcards
three central metaphors for the self
- The Social Actor
The self may be seen as a social actor, who enacts roles and displays traits by performing behaviors in the presence of others. - The Motivated Agent
The self is a motivated agent, who acts upon inner desires and formulates goals, values, and plans to guide behavior in the future. - The Autobiographical Author
The self eventually becomes an autobiographical author, too, who takes stock of life — past, present, and future — to create a story about who I am, how I came to be, and where my life may be going.
Learning Objectives:
Explain the basic idea of reflexivity in human selfhood—how the “I” encounters and makes sense of itself (the “Me”).
Describe fundamental distinctions between three different perspectives on the self: the self as actor, agent, and author.
Describe how a sense of self as a social actor emerges around the age of 2 years and how it develops going forward.
Describe the development of the self’s sense of motivated agency from the emergence of the child’s theory of mind to the articulation of life goals and values in adolescence and beyond.
Define the term narrative identity, and explain what psychological and cultural functions narrative identity serves.
reflexive
The idea that the self reflects back upon itself; that the I (the knower, the subject) encounters the Me (the known, the object). Reflexivity is a fundamental property of human selfhood.
For human beings, the sense of the self as a social actor begins to emerge around the age of ________.
18 months (1.5 to 2 years of age)
* We also start to feel embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride all having to do with the concept of self
Freud’s ego
Sigmund Freud’s conception of an executive self in the personality. Akin to this module’s notion of “the I,” Freud imagined the ego as observing outside reality, engaging in rational thought, and coping with the competing demands of inner desires and moral standards.
Erikson on experiences of trust and interpersonal attachment
experiences of trust and interpersonal attachment in the first year of life help to consolidate the autonomy of the ego in the second.
Mead & Reflection
Noting how other people in my social world react to my performances. In the development of the self as a social actor, other people function like mirrors—they reflect who I am back to me.
I am the me that I think others see
Big five - OCEAN
Five, broad general traits that are included in many prominent models of personality. The five traits are neuroticism (those high on this trait are prone to feeling sad, worried, anxious, and dissatisfied with themselves), extraversion (high scorers are friendly, assertive, outgoing, cheerful, and energetic), openness to experience (those high on this trait are tolerant, intellectually curious, imaginative, and artistic), agreeableness (high scorers are polite, considerate, cooperative, honest, and trusting), and conscientiousness (those high on this trait are responsible, cautious, organized, disciplined, and achievement-oriented).
Children and stages of self attribution
Age 4
*simple behavioral traits
- nice & helpful
- I have long brown hair
Age 10
*More complex traits
- moody & honest
- good at math not at gym
Late childhood and early adolescence
*Traits tend to correlate in ways that conform and relate to the Big Five (OCEAN)
*self concepts also tend to include social roles
- I am a good student
- I am the eldest daughter
self as social actor
The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances may be construed in terms of more or less consistent self-ascribed traits and social roles.
social reputation
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor. Actors also have their own conceptions of what they imagine their respective social reputations indeed are in the eyes of others.
Idea behind motivated agent
When we observe others we only see how they act but are never able to access the entirety of their internal experience.
*Everyone tries different identities based on agents that motivate them to change or try something new as part of their identity
Theory of Mind
The human capacity to understand minds, a capacity that is made up of a collection of concepts (e.g., agent, intentionality) and processes (e.g., goal detection, imitation, empathy, perspective taking).
the age 5-7 shift
Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years that result in the child’s developing a more purposeful, planful, and goal-directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a motivated agent.
self-esteem
The extent to which a person feels that he or she is worthy and good. The success or failure that the motivated agent experiences in pursuit of valued goals is a strong determinant of self-esteem.
Erikson developmental challenge of identity
Sometimes used synonymously with the term “self,” identity means many different things in psychological science and in other fields (e.g., sociology). In this module, I adopt Erik Erikson’s conception of identity as a developmental task for late adolescence and young adulthood. Forming an identity in adolescence and young adulthood involves exploring alternative roles, values, goals, and relationships and eventually committing to a realistic agenda for life that productively situates a person in the adult world of work and love. In addition, identity formation entails commitments to new social roles and reevaluation of old traits, and importantly, it brings with it a sense of temporal continuity in life, achieved though the construction of an integrative life story.
Autobiographical Author - the “I”
The self as knower, the sense of the self as a subject who encounters (knows, works on) itself (the Me).
Autobiogrphical Author - the “Me”
The self as known, the sense of the self as the object or target of the I’s knowledge and work.
Autobiogrphical Author - the “third stand point of self”
KNOWN AS NARRATIVE ADENTITY
how my past self has developed into my present self, and how my present self will, in turn, develop into an envisioned future self
- the I’s ability to construct a retrospective and prospective story about the Me
Narrative Identity:
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose. Beginning in late adolescence, people craft self-defining stories that reconstruct the past and imagine the future to explain how the person came to be the person that he or she is becoming.
autobiographical reasoning
The ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one’s own personal experiences.
self as autobiographical author
The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and imagines the future in order to articulate an integrative narrative that provides life with some measure of temporal continuity and purpose.
redemptive narratives
Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced status or state. In American culture, redemptive life stories are highly prized as models for the good self, as in classic narratives of atonement, upward mobility, liberation, and recovery.
The fact that different parts of the self impact each other—that the “I” resonates back on the “me”—supports the Greek notion that the self is inherently ______.
a. empirical.
b. self-fulfilling.
c. self-perpetuating.
d. interdependent.
e. reflexive.
e. reflexive.
According to the theory of Erik Erikson, the search for ______is the primary developmental challenge of the teenage years, and this “crisis” extends through adolescence and into young adulthood.
identity
Paulo is in his mid-twenties, and recently he has been considering his life. He thinks back over all of his past experiences as well as what he wants to accomplish in the future. The combination of these actions produces a(n) ______that may be revised several times as his life continues.
narrative identity
Learning Objectives:
Understand why relationships are key to happiness and health.
Define and list different forms of relationships.
List different aspects of well-being.
Explain how relationships can enhance well-being.
Explain how relationships might not enhance well-being.
operationalization
The process of defining a concept so that it can be measured. In psychology, this often happens by identifying related concepts or behaviors that can be more easily measured.
objective social variables
Targets of research interest that are factual and not subject to personal opinions or feelings.
social integration - objective
The size of your social network, or number of social roles (e.g., son, sister, student, employee, team member).
This can be measured by looking at the frequency and amount of social activity or contact one has with others
subjective social variables
Targets of research interest that are not necessarily factual but are related to personal opinions or feelings
social support - subjective
The perception or actuality that we have a social network that can help us in times of need and provide us with a variety of useful resources (e.g., advice, love, money).
Researchers using diary method
allows researchers to examine in-the-moment instances and/or day-to-day trends of how social relationships affect happiness and well-being compared to more global measures.
subjective well-being
The name that scientists give to happiness—thinking and feeling that our lives are going very well.
*scientific term for well-being
three components of subjective well-being
- high life satisfaction
- positive evaluations of one’s life in general - positive feelings
- the amount of positive emotions one experiences in life - low negative feelings
- the amount of negative emotions one experiences in life
health
According to the World Health Organization, it is a complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
*Physical dimension of well-being
*free of illness or infirmity
health can be defined in terms of
(A) injury
(B) disease
(C) mortality
health behaviours
Behaviors that are associated with better health. Examples include exercising, not smoking, and wearing a seat belt while in a vehicle.
Well being & Presence of relationships
Researchers have discovered that the more social relationships people have, in general, the more positively their sense of well-being is impacted
*Happiest people spend time less alone
- even a few high quality social relationships was consistently linked with subjective well-being
ostracism
Being excluded and ignored by others.
shunning
The act of avoiding or ignoring a person, and withholding all social interaction for a period of time. Shunning generally occurs as a punishment and is temporary.
Well being & Quality of relationships
Researchers have found that higher friendship quality is associated with increased happiness
- good relationships also translate to better health
- Research has shown that having a larger social network and high quality relationships can be beneficial for health, whereas having a small social network and poor quality relationships can actually be detrimental to health
intimate relationships - the importance of a confidante
confidante: A trusted person with whom secrets and vulnerabilities can be shared.
**more important to happiness than having a large social network
formal relationships
bound by the rules of politeness
*kids respect adults
*workplace relationships
*less relaxed
*require more work
informal relationships
*Friends
*Lovers
*Siblings
- Relaxed; authentic; natural use of language
- vulnerable
- can express true feelings & opinions
dark triad
psychopathy
narcissism
machiavellianism
psychopathy
Synonymous with psychopathic personality, the term used by Cleckley (1941/1976), and adapted from the term psychopathic introduced by German psychiatrist Julius Koch (1888) to designate mental disorders presumed to be heritable.
narcissism
A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), a need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
machiavellianism
Being cunning, strategic, or exploitative in one’s relationships. Named after Machiavelli, who outlined this way of relating in his book, The Prince.
correlation
A measure of the association between two variables, or how they go together.
Jamie trusts her best friend Ariana and shares all her secrets and fears with her. Ariana is known as Jamie’s ______.
confidante
A person with a strong need for admiration and a lack of empathy would be displaying ______.
narcissism
The psychiatrist asked Maria how she felt about the quality of her marriage; a type of ______ variable.
subjective social
What is the name of the scientific term used to describe how people experience the quality of their lives in terms of life satisfaction?
subjective well-being
Relationships help satisfy our deep-seated, psychological need to ______.
belong
Learning Objectives:
Appreciate culture as an evolutionary adaptation common to all humans.
Understand cultural processes as variable patterns rather than as fixed scripts.
Understand research methods when studying culture in psychological science.
Appreciate cultural awareness as a source of personal well-being, social responsibility, and social harmony.
Explain the difference between individualism and collectivism.
Define “self-construal” and provide a real life example.
Social psychologists are interested in the ways that ______ forces influence psychological processes.
cultural
ethnographic studies
Research that emphasizes field data collection and that examines questions that attempt to understand culture from it’s own context and point of view.
How anthropologists seek to understand culture
anthropologists seek to understand and appreciate culture from the point of view of the people within it
cultural psychology
An approach to researching culture that emphasizes the use of interviews and observation as a means of understanding culture from its own point of view.
open ended questions
Research questions that ask participants to answer in their own words.
cultural similarities
An approach to understanding culture primarily by paying attention to common features that are the same as or similar to those of other cultures
standard scale
Research method in which all participants use a common scale—typically a Likert scale—to respond to questions.
ethnocentric bias
Being unduly guided by the beliefs of the culture you’ve grown up in, especially when this results in a misunderstanding or disparagement of unfamiliar cultures.
Ex. Poor country happiness stats still higher than others even though country is poor
This means that the researcher who designs the study might be influenced by personal biases that could affect research outcomes—without even being aware of it.
culture
A pattern of shared meaning and behavior among a group of people that is passed from one generation to the next.
Four core features of culture
- Versatility: Culture can change and adapt. Someone from the state of Orissa, in India, for example, may have multiple identities. She might see herself as Oriya when at home and speaking her native language. At other times, such as during the national cricket match against Pakistan, she might consider herself Indian. This is known as situational identity.
- Sharing: Culture is the product of people sharing with one another. Humans cooperate and share knowledge and skills with other members of their networks. The ways they share, and the content of what they share, helps make up culture. Older adults, for instance, remember a time when long-distance friendships were maintained through letters that arrived in the mail every few months. Contemporary youth culture accomplishes the same goal through the use of instant text messages on smart phones.
- Accumulation: Cultural knowledge is cumulative. That is, information is “stored.” This means that a culture’s collective learning grows across generations. We understand more about the world today than we did 200 years ago, but that doesn’t mean the culture from long ago has been erased by the new. For instance, members of the Haida culture—a First Nations people in British Columbia, Canada—profit from both ancient and modern experiences. They might employ traditional fishing practices and wisdom stories while also using modern technologies and services.
- Patterns: There are systematic and predictable ways of behavior or thinking across members of a culture. Patterns emerge from adapting, sharing, and storing cultural information. Patterns can be both similar and different across cultures. For example, in both Canada and India it is considered polite to bring a small gift to a host’s home. In Canada, it is more common to bring a bottle of wine and for the gift to be opened right away. In India, by contrast, it is more common to bring sweets, and often the gift is set aside to be opened later.
cultural intelligence
The ability and willingness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses.
enculturation
The uniquely human form of learning that is taught by one generation to another.
Three ways of interpreting culture
Progressive cultivation: This refers to a relatively small subset of activities that are intentional and aimed at “being refined.” Examples include learning to play a musical instrument, appreciating visual art, and attending theater performances, as well as other instances of so-called “high art.” This was the predominant use of the word culture through the mid-19th century. This notion of culture formed the basis, in part, of a superior mindset on the behalf of people from the upper economic classes. For instance, many tribal groups were seen as lacking cultural sophistication under this definition. In the late 19th century, as global travel began to rise, this understanding of culture was largely replaced with an understanding of it as a way of life.
Ways of Life: This refers to distinct patterns of beliefs and behaviors widely shared among members of a culture. The “ways of life” understanding of culture shifts the emphasis to patterns of belief and behavior that persist over many generations. Although cultures can be small—such as “school culture”—they usually describe larger populations, such as nations. People occasionally confuse national identity with culture. There are similarities in culture between Japan, China, and Korea, for example, even though politically they are very different. Indeed, each of these nations also contains a great deal of cultural variation within themselves.
Shared Learning: In the 20th century, anthropologists and social psychologists developed the concept of enculturation to refer to the ways people learn about and shared cultural knowledge. Where “ways of life” is treated as a noun “enculturation” is a verb. That is, enculturation is a fluid and dynamic process. That is, it emphasizes that culture is a process that can be learned. As children are raised in a society, they are taught how to behave according to regional cultural norms. As immigrants settle in a new country, they learn a new set of rules for behaving and interacting. In this way, it is possible for a person to have multiple cultural scripts.
*Negotiating and debating about cultural values and identities
cultural scripts
Learned guides for how to behave appropriately in a given social situation. These reflect cultural norms and widely accepted values.
understanding culture as learned patterns is interesting… (3)
- highlights the ways groups can come into conflict with one another
*Why are you wearing that hijab? - Means that people can adopt an appreciation of patterns of behavior that are different than their own.
*I’m gonna look into hijabs - helpful in developing self-awareness.
*ok, yeah that’s why your wearing a hijab
*I probably shouldn’t wear a hijab
cultural intelligence
In a world that is increasingly connected by travel, technology, and business THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND AND APPRECIATE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CULTURES is more important than ever.
individualism
Belief system that exalts freedom, independence, and individual choice as high values.
collectivism
Belief system that emphasizes the duties and obligations that each person has toward others.
vertical societies
People differ in status, with some people being more highly respected or having more privileges
horizontal societies
People are relatively equal in status and privileges.
Four society types
based on:
- individualism
- collectivism
- vertical
- horizontal
Individualism & Vertical
*people are unique
*some distinguish themselves
*some enjoy higher status
Ex. America
Individualism & Horizontal
*people are unique
*people have same status
Ex. Denmark
Collectivism & Vertical
*People emphasize connectedness
*Must do duty
*some enjoy higher status
Ex. Japan
Collectivism & Horizontal
*People emphasize connectedness
*people have same status
*work together towards goals
Ex. Israeli kibbutz
self-construal
The extent to which the self is defined as independent or as relating to others.
independent self
The tendency to define the self in terms of stable traits that guide behavior.
People see themselves as
A) being a unique individual with a stable collection of personal traits
&
B) these traits drive behavior.
interdependent self
The tendency to define the self in terms of social contexts that guide behavior.
People see themselves as
A) defined differently in each new social context &
B) social context, rather than internal traits, are the primary drivers of behavior
observational learning
Learning by observing the behavior of others.
rituals
Rites or actions performed in a systematic or prescribed way often for an intended purpose. Example: The exchange of wedding rings during a marriage ceremony in many cultures.
value-free research
Research that is not influenced by the researchers’ own values, morality, or opinions.
cultural relativism
The idea that cultural norms and values of a society can only be understood on their own terms or in their own context.
Alison thinks of herself as a good friend, a big sister, and a loving wife. Which self-construal is she an example of?
a. the interdependent self
b. collectivism
c. horizontalism
a. the interdependent self
The people of Mateo’s village all work together and share their food. All of the village members have equal status in their community. What type of culture is this?
horizontal collectivist
When students wear a cap and gown and receive a printed diploma in front of friends and family, this is an example of:
a ritual
Learning Objectives:
Distinguish gender and sex, as well as gender identity and sexual orientation.
Discuss gender differences that exist, as well as those that do not actually exist.
Understand and explain different theories of how gender roles are formed.
Discuss sexism and its impact on gender.
sex
The biological category of male or female, as defined by physical differences in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and function
gender
The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity and femininity
gender roles
The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture
gender stereotypes
The beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women
gender identity
A person’s psychological sense of being male or female
sexual orientation
The direction of their emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes
gender as binary
The notion that a person is either male or female
cisgender
People who identify with the gender that matches their biological sex
transgender
Person who identifies with a gender that does not match their biological sex
0.6% of population
genderqueer or gender nonbinary
Umbrella terms used to describe a wide range of individuals who do not identify with and/or conform to the gender binary
genderfluid
Identify as male, female, both, or neither at different times and in different circumstances
agender
Individuals who may have no gender or describe themselves as having a neutral gender
bigender
Individuals identify as two genders
Differences between males and females can be based on
(A)
(B)
(C)
(a) actual gender differences (i.e., men and women are actually different in some abilities)
(b) gender roles (i.e., differences in how men and women are supposed to act)
(c) gender stereotypes (i.e., differences in how we think men and women are).
Gender stereotypes
The beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women
gender constancy
The awareness that gender is constant and does not change simply by changing external attributes; develops between 3 and 6 years of age
developmental intergroup theory
Postulates that adults’ heavy focus on gender leads children to pay attention to gender as a key source of information about themselves and others, to seek out any possible gender differences, and to form rigid stereotypes based on gender that are subsequently difficult to change
Gender Schema Theory
Argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves
schemas
A mental representation or set of beliefs about something.
you are more likely to remember schema-consistent behaviors
more likely to remember men, and forget women, who are firefighters.
social learning theory
The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others.
gender discrimination
Differential treatment on the basis of gender
sexual harassment
When gender discrimination is based on unwanted treatment related to sexual behaviors or appearance
ambivalent sexism
two qualities:
- hostile sexism
- benevolent sexism
Recognizes the complex nature of gender attitudes, in which women are often associated with positive and negative qualities
- hostile sexism: The negative attitudes of women as inferior and incompetent relative to men
- benevolent sexism: Refers to the perception that women need to be protected, supported, and adored by men
Important Gender-related Events in the United States
1920 — 19th Amendment (women’s Suffrage Ratified)
1941-1945 — World War II forces millions of women to enter the workforce
1948 — Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1963 — Congress passes Equal Pay Act
1964 — Congress passes Civil Rights Act, which outlaws sex discrimination
1969 — Stonewall riots in NYC, forcing gay rights into the American spotlight
1972 –Congress passes Equal Rights Amendment; TitleIX prohibits sex discrimination is schools and sports
1973 — American Psychiatric Association removes homosexuality from the DSM
1981 — First woman appointed to the US Supreme Court
1987 — Average woman earned $0.68 for every $1.00 earned by a man
1992 — World Health Organization no longer considers homosexuality an illness
1993 — Supreme Court rules that sexual harassment in the workplace is illegal
2011 — Don’t Ask Don’t Tell is repealed, allowing people who identify as gay serve openly in the US military
2012 — President Barack Obama becomes the first American president to openly support LGBT rights and marriage equality
