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PSYCH 100 Exam Winter Review > Week 22: Personality > Flashcards

Week 22: Personality Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning Objectives

List and describe the “Big Five” (“OCEAN”) personality traits that comprise the Five-Factor Model of personality.

Describe how the facet approach extends broad personality traits.

Explain a critique of the personality-trait concept.

Describe in what ways personality traits may be manifested in everyday behavior.

Describe each of the Big Five personality traits, and the low and high end of the dimension.

Give examples of each of the Big Five personality traits, including both a low and high example.

Describe how traits and social learning combine to predict your social activities.

Describe your theory of how personality traits get refined by social learning.

A
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2
Q

personality

A

Characteristic, routine ways of thinking, feeling, and relating to others.

*characteristic ways that people differ from one another

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3
Q

personality traits

A

Enduring dispositions in behavior that show differences across individuals, and which tend to characterize the person across varying types of situations.

*limited number of these dimensions (dimensions like Extraversion, Conscientiousness, or Agreeableness)
- people can fall under low, medium or high

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4
Q

continuous distributions within personality traits

A

Characteristics can go from low to high, with all different intermediate values possible. One does not simply have the trait or not have it, but can possess varying amounts of it.

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5
Q

three criteria that characterize personality traits

A

(1) consistency
- consistent across situations in their behaviors
ex. talkative at home and at school

(2) stability
- stable over time in behaviors
ex. talkative at the age of 30 & 40

(3) individual differences.

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5
Q

Extraversion

A

A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive.

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6
Q

The lexical hypothesis
Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert

A

Idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people. Therefore, if we want to know which personality traits are most important, we can look to the language that people use to describe themselves and others.

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7
Q

factor analysis

A

A statistical technique for grouping similar things together according to how highly they are associated.

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8
Q

five factor model OCEAN

A

Five broad domains or dimensions that are used to describe human personality.

Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neurotism

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9
Q

Openness

A

Associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness.

*People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.

Low
- prefers not to be exposed to other moral systems
- narrow interests
- inartistic
- not analytical

High
- untraditional
- curious
- imaginative
- would think that person with the new cut and piercings is kinda cool

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10
Q

Conscientiousness

A

A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be careful, organized, hardworking, and to follow rules.

Low
- spur of the moment action planning
- unreliable
- careless
- lax

High
- Never late
- organized
- hardworking
- neat
- punctual
- persevering

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11
Q

Extraversion

A

A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive.

Low
- prefer quiet evening more than a loud party
- sober
- aloof
- unenthusiastic

High
- life of the party
- active
- optimistic
- fun loving
- affectionate

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12
Q

Agreeableness

A

Reflects a person’s tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, warm, and caring to others.

*People low in agreeableness tend to be rude, hostile, and to pursue their own interests over those of others.

Low
- Quickly and assertively asserts boundaries and rights
- irritable
- manipulative
- uncooperative
- rude

High
- agrees with others about politics
- good natured
- forgiving
- gullible
- gullible

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13
Q

Neurotisicism

A

Reflects the tendency to be interpersonally sensitive and the tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger.

Low
- irritated by small annoyances
- calm
- unemotional
- secure
- self satisfied

High
- constantly worrying about little things
- insecure
- feeling inadequate

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14
Q

Facets of Traits (Subtraits)

A

Broad personality traits can be broken down into narrower facets or aspects of the trait. For example, extraversion has several facets, such as sociability, dominance, risk-taking and so forth.

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15
Q

HEXACO model

A

The HEXACO model is an alternative to the Five-Factor Model. The HEXACO model includes six traits, five of which are variants of the traits included in the Big Five

(Emotionality [E],
Extraversion [X],
Agreeableness [A],
Conscientiousness [C],
Openness [O]).

The sixth factor, Honesty-Humility [H], is unique to this model.

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16
Q

Honesty-Humility (From HEXACO)

A

low
- manipulative
- narcissistic
- self-centered

high
- sincere
- fair
- modest

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17
Q

Personality and Assessment (1968)
Walter Mischel

Evolved into ‘Person-Situation debate’

A

People behave differently based on the role their playing in certain contexts
*basically code switching

The person-situation debate is a historical debate about the relative power of personality traits as compared to situational influences on behavior. The situationist critique, which started the person-situation debate, suggested that people overestimate the extent to which personality traits are consistent across situations.

SO… Mischel thought that psychologists should focus on people’s distinctive reactions to specific situations.

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18
Q

The enduring dispositions that people show across situations are called personality ______.

A

traits

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19
Q

______ refers to the fact that traits tend not to change very much over time. As an example, if a person tends to be very anxious as a 30-year old, they would probably be rather anxious as a 40-year old.

A

stability

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20
Q

Richard tends to be a very positive person but Kenny is a rather grumpy person. This contrast reflects one of the three main criteria of a personality trait, which is ______.

A

individual differences

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21
Q

What was the basic premise of the lexical hypothesis, introduced by Allport and Odbert?

A

Personality characteristics should be reflected in the language that we use to describe people.

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22
Q

______ is a statistical technique that allows one to group things together according to how highly they are associated (or how similar they truly are).

A

factor analysis

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23
Q

What is the best way to describe the relationship between the personality traits in the Five-Factor Model?

a. The traits are relatively independent. A high score on one trait tells little about a score on another trait.

b. Two of the traits – Extraversion and Conscientiousness – are positively correlated..

c. Three traits– Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Openness – are positively correlated..

d. The traits are all negatively correlated. A high score on one of the traits tends to predict a low score on another.

e. The traits are all positively correlated. A high score on one of the traits tends to predict a high score on another.

A

a. The traits are relatively independent. A high score on one trait tells little about a score on another trait.

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24
Q

In a new revision of the Five-Factor approach to personality traits, called the HEXACO model, a sixth trait has been added. What is that newer trait?

A

Honesty/Humility

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25
Q

Learning Objectives:

Define heterotypic stability, homotypic stability, absolute stability, and differential stability.

Describe evidence concerning the absolute and differential stability of personality attributes across the lifespan.

Explain the maturity, cumulative continuity, and corresponsive principles of personality development.

Explain person-environment transactions, and distinguish between active, reactive, and evocative person-environment transactions.
Identify the four processes that promote personality stability (attraction, selection, manipulation, and attrition). Provide examples of these processes.

Describe the mechanisms behind the possibility of personality transformation.

A
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26
Q

heterotypic stability

A

Consistency in the underlying psychological attribute across development regardless of any changes in how the attribute is expressed at different ages.

*attributes may represent themselves in behaviour differently throughout time

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27
Q

homotypic stability

A

Consistency of the exact same thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across development.

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28
Q

stress reaction

A

The tendency to become easily distressed by the normal challenges of life.

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29
Q

absolute stability

A

Consistency in the level or amount of a personality attribute over time.

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30
Q

absolute stability: group level

A

A focus on summary statistics that apply to aggregates of individuals when studying personality development. An example is considering whether the average score of a group of 50 year olds is higher than the average score of a group of 21 year olds when considering a trait like conscientiousness.

Ex. how are most 18-year-olds different than most 38-year-olds?

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31
Q

absolute stability: individual level

A

A focus on individual level statistics that reflect whether individuals show stability or change when studying personality development. An example is evaluating how many individuals increased in conscientiousness versus how many decreased in conscientiousness when considering the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

Ex. how is 18-year-old you different than 38-year-old you?

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32
Q

Differential Stability

A

Consistency in the rank-ordering of personality across two or more measurement occasions.

Differential stability is often interesting because many psychological attributes show average changes across the lifespan.

Ex. whether a 20-year-old who is low in stress reaction relative to her same-aged peers develops into a 40-year-old who is also low in stress reaction compared to her peers.

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33
Q

cross sectional study

A

A research design that uses a group of individuals with different ages (and birth cohorts) assessed at a single point in time.

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34
Q

longitudinal study

A

A study that follows the same group of individuals over time.

35
Q

birth cohort

A

Individuals born in a particular year or span of time.

36
Q

age effects

A

Differences in personality between groups of different ages that are related to maturation and development instead of birth cohort differences.

37
Q

cohort effects

A

Differences in personality that are related to historical and social factors unique to individuals born in a particular year.

38
Q

maturity principle of adult personality development

A

The generalization that personality attributes associated with the successful fulfillment of adult roles increase with age and experience.

  • as we age we adjust our traits to fit with our new, adult responsibilities.
39
Q

Differential stability

A

Consistency in the rank-ordering of personality across two or more measurement occasions.

40
Q

cumulative continuity principle of personality development

A

The generalization that personality attributes show increasing stability with age and experience.

41
Q

William James remarked that character (personality) was “set like plaster” for most people by age ____.

A

30

*research shows that while some traits are stable, others continue to develop and adjust to our new environments

42
Q

person-environment transaction

A

The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that ends up shaping both personality and the environment.

43
Q

Active person–environment transactions

A

The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that occurs whenever individuals play a key role in seeking out, selecting, or otherwise manipulating aspects of their environment.

leisure time:
risk taker vs cautious

44
Q

Reactive person–environment transactions

A

The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances occurs whenever attributes of the individual shape how a person perceives and responds to their environment.

large social gatherings:
extravert vs introvert

45
Q

Evocative person–environment transactions

A

The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that occurs whenever attributes of the individual draw out particular responses from others in their environment.

responses from others:
warm and secure vs cold and aloof

46
Q

ASTMA
Brent Roberts

A

Attraction (A) - personality stability

selection (S) - personality stability

transformation (T) explains personality change

manipulation (M) - personality stability

attrition (A) - personality stability

47
Q

‘attractions’ in context of personality

A

A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs because individuals with particular traits are drawn to certain environments.

48
Q

define ‘select’ in context of personality

A

A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs whenever individuals with particular attributes choose particular kinds of environments.

Ex. extravert would be better salesman than introvert

49
Q

‘attrition’ in context of personality

A

A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs because individuals with particular traits drop out from certain environments.

50
Q

‘manipulate’ in the context of personality

A

A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs whenever individuals with particular traits actively shape their environments.

Ex. extravert will go around talking to people in office, and an introvert will purposefully stand by water jug to avoid people

51
Q

Four processes in matching personality and environment

A

Attraction - personality drawn to environment

Selection - environment suits personality

Attrition - certain parts of personality fall out when in a given environment

Manipulation - individual manipulates what they can in environment to suit personality

52
Q

Corresponsive principle of personality development

A

The idea that personality traits often become matched with environmental conditions such that an individual’s social context acts to accentuate and reinforce their personality attributes.

53
Q

hostile attribution bias

A

The tendency of some individuals to interpret ambiguous social cues and interactions as examples of aggressiveness, disrespect, or antagonism.

54
Q

transformation

A

The term for personality changes associated with experience and life events.

Behaviours that are:

positive consequences (pleasure) are repeated

negative consequences (pain) will diminish

*Our personality is the result of the self interacting with the environment. Who you are helps to determine what you do and like, and what you do and like helps to determine who you are.

55
Q

_____ person–environment transactions occur when individuals seek out certain kinds of environments and experiences that are consistent with their personality characteristics.

A

Active

56
Q

______ person–environment transactions occur when individuals react differently to the same objective situation because of their personalities.

A

Reactive

57
Q

_______ person–environment transactions occur whenever individuals draw out or evoke certain kinds of responses from their social environments because of their personality attributes.

A

Evocative

58
Q

_______ stability refers to the psychological coherence of an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across development.

A

heterotypic

59
Q

______ stability concerns the amount of similarity in the same observable personality characteristics across time.

A

homotypic

60
Q

A question about the degree of consistency in underlying personality attributes would concern _____ stability.

A

heterotypic

61
Q

_____ stability concerns consistency of levels of personality attributes across time.

A

Absolute

62
Q

Learning Objectives:

Appreciate the diversity of methods that are used to measure personality characteristics.

Understand the logic, strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

Gain a better sense of the overall validity and range of applications of personality tests.

A
63
Q

Personality is the field within psychology that studies the thoughts, feelings, behaviors, goals, and interests of _______ individuals.

A

Normal

64
Q

Objective tests

A

represent the most familiar and widely used approach to assessing personality. Objective tests involve administering a standard set of items, each of which is answered using a limited set of response options (e.g., true or false; strongly disagree, slightly disagree, slightly agree, strongly agree). Responses to these items then are scored in a standardized, predetermined way.

For example, self-ratings on items assessing talkativeness, assertiveness, sociability, adventurousness, and energy can be summed up to create an overall score on the personality trait of extraversion.

65
Q

TWO types of Objective personality tests

A
  1. Self-Report Measures
  2. Informant Ratings
66
Q

Self Report Measures

A

*Asks people to describe themselves
- most widely used in modern personality research
- tend to have high validity

Two Key advantages:

  1. Self-raters have access to an unparalleled wealth of information: After all, who knows more about you than you yourself? In particular, self-raters have direct access to their own thoughts, feelings, and motives, which may not be readily available to others
  2. Asking people to describe themselves is the simplest, easiest, and most cost-effective approach to assessing personality. Countless studies, for instance, have involved administering self-report measures to college students, who are provided some relatively simple incentive (e.g., extra course credit) to participate.

Three Key Disadvantages:

  1. Self-raters may be motivated to present themselves in an overly favourable, socially desirable way (especially in high-stakes testing)
  2. Self-enhancement bias in other words, people are motivated to ignore (or at least downplay) some of their less desirable characteristics and to focus instead on their more positive attributes.
  3. Self-ratings are subject to the reference group effect; basing our self-perceptions, in part, on how we compare to others in our sociocultural reference group. For instance, if you tend to work harder than most of your friends, you will see yourself as someone who is relatively conscientious, even if you are not particularly conscientious in any absolute sense.
67
Q

validity

A

Evidence related to the interpretation and use of test scores. A particularly important type of evidence is criterion validity, which involves the ability of a test to predict theoretically relevant outcomes. For example, a presumed measure of conscientiousness should be related to academic achievement (such as overall grade point average).

68
Q

High stakes testing

A

Settings in which test scores are used to make important decisions about individuals. For example, test scores may be used to determine which individuals are admitted into a college or graduate school, or who should be hired for a job. Tests also are used in forensic settings to help determine whether a person is competent to stand trial or fits the legal definition of sanity.

69
Q

Self-enhancement bias

A

The tendency for people to see and/or present themselves in an overly favorable way. This tendency can take two basic forms: defensiveness (when individuals actually believe they are better than they really are) and impression management (when people intentionally distort their responses to try to convince others that they are better than they really are). Informants also can show enhancement biases. The general form of this bias has been called the letter-of-recommendation effect, which is the tendency of informants who like the person they are rating (e.g., friends, relatives, romantic partners) to describe them in an overly favorable way. In the case of newlyweds, this tendency has been termed the honeymoon effect.

70
Q

Reference group effect

A

The tendency of people to base their self-concept on comparisons with others. For example, if your friends tend to be very smart and successful, you may come to see yourself as less intelligent and successful than you actually are. Informants also are prone to these types of effects. For instance, the sibling contrast effect refers to the tendency of parents to exaggerate the true extent of differences between their children.

71
Q

Informant Ratings

A

*Ask someone who knows a person well to describe his or her personality characteristics.
- In the case of children or adolescents, the informant is most likely to be a parent or teacher. In studies of older participants, informants may be friends, roommates, dating partners, spouses, children, or bosses
*valuable when self-ratings are impossible to collect (e.g., when studying young children or cognitively impaired adults) or when their validity is suspect (e.g., as noted earlier, people may not be entirely honest in high-stakes testing situations). They also may be combined with self-ratings of the same characteristics to produce more reliable and valid measures of these attributes

Advantages:
- A well-acquainted informant presumably has had the opportunity to observe large samples of behavior in the person he or she is rating.
- Judgments presumably are not subject to the types of defensiveness that potentially can distort self-ratings
- Level of validity in relation to important life outcomes that is comparable to that discussed earlier for self-ratings. Indeed, they outperform self-ratings in certain circumstances, particularly when the assessed traits are highly evaluative in nature

Problems and limitations:
- level of relevant information that is available to the rater
- informants lack full access to the thoughts, feelings, and motives of the person they are rating
- reference group effect still in play

72
Q

sibling-contrast effect

A

The tendency of parents to use their perceptions of all of their children as a frame of reference for rating the characteristics of each of them. For example, suppose that a mother has three children; two of these children are very sociable and outgoing, whereas the third is relatively average in sociability. Because of operation of this effect, the mother will rate this third child as less sociable and outgoing than he/she actually is. More generally, this effect causes parents to exaggerate the true extent of differences between their children. This effect represents a specific manifestation of the more general reference group effect when applied to ratings made by parents.

73
Q

letter of recommendation effect

A

The general tendency for informants in personality studies to rate others in an unrealistically positive manner. This tendency is due a pervasive bias in personality assessment: In the large majority of published studies, informants are individuals who like the person they are rating (e.g., they often are friends or family members) and, therefore, are motivated to depict them in a socially desirable way. The term reflects a similar tendency for academic letters of recommendation to be overly positive and to present the referent in an unrealistically desirable manner.

74
Q

honeymoon effect

A

The tendency for newly married individuals to rate their spouses in an unrealistically positive manner. This represents a specific manifestation of the letter of recommendation effect when applied to ratings made by current romantic partners. Moreover, it illustrates the very important role played by relationship satisfaction in ratings made by romantic partners: As marital satisfaction declines (i.e., when the “honeymoon is over”), this effect disappears.

75
Q

Other Ways of Classifying Objective Tests
- Comprehensiveness

A

The extent to which an instrument seeks to assess personality in a reasonably comprehensive manner

One Extreme:
Measures are designed to assess a single core attribute
- Toronto Alexithymia Scale
- Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
- Multidimensional Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire

Another Extreme:
A number of omnibus inventories contain a large number of specific scales and purport to measure personality in a reasonably comprehensive manner
- California Psychological Inventory
- Revised HEXACO Personality Inventory
- NEO Personality Inventory-3
- Personality Research Form
- Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

76
Q

Other Ways of Classifying Objective Tests
- Breadth of the target characteristics

A

Personality characteristics can be classified at different levels of breadth or generality.

  • Many models emphasize broad, “big” traits that have lots of facets that would not necessarily score similarly
  • Some popular personality instruments are designed to assess only the broad, general traits.

Ex. Big Five only on general traits

Ex. Other inventories only on a large number of more specific characteristics

Ex. HEXACO-PI-R and the NEO-PI-3 on both general and specific trait characteristics

77
Q

ProjectiveTests
Projective Hypothesis

TWO MAIN EXAMPLES:
- Rorschach Inkblot Test
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A
  • belief that important thoughts, feelings, and motives operate outside of conscious awareness.

Projective Hypothesis: The theory that when people are confronted with ambiguous stimuli (that is, stimuli that can be interpreted in more than one way), their responses will be influenced by their unconscious thoughts, needs, wishes, and impulses. This, in turn, is based on the Freudian notion of projection, which is the idea that people attribute their own undesirable/unacceptable characteristics to other people or objects.

Ex. ambiguous stimuli showed
- responses will be influenced by nonconscious needs, feelings, and experiences

Rorschach Inkblot Test
- asks respondents to interpret symmetrical blots of ink
Critique: fails to provide important incremental information beyond other, more easily acquired information, such as that obtained from standard self-report measures

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- asks respondents to generate stories about a series of pictures.
Support: reviews have concluded that TAT-based measures of the need for achievement
(a) show significant validity to predict important criteria
&
(b) provide important information beyond that obtained from objective measures of this motive
*implicit motives: These are goals that are important to a person, but that he/she cannot consciously express. Because the individual cannot verbalize these goals directly, they cannot be easily assessed via self-report. However, they can be measured using projective devices such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

78
Q

Implicit Tests

A

based on the assumption that people form automatic or implicit associations between certain concepts based on their previous experience and behaviour.

*If two concepts (e.g., me and assertive) are strongly associated with each other, then they should be sorted together more quickly and easily than two concepts (e.g., me and shy) that are less strongly associated.

79
Q

Behaviour & Performance Measures

A

Infer important personality characteristics from direct samples of behaviour.
* Observing real world behavior is one way to assess personality. Tendencies such as messiness and neatness are clues to personality.

Ex. Using EAR, the participant and observer both rate the participant on extraversion based on how much they talked over two days

Behavioural measures Advantages:
- directly sampled, not subject to the types of response biases that can distort scores on objective tests.
- allows people to be studied in their daily lives and in their natural environments, thereby avoiding the artificiality of other methods
- only approach that actually assesses what people do, as opposed to what they think or feel

Behavioural measures Disadvantages:
- labor intensive compared to using objective tests, particularly self-report
- need to be scored in a reliable and valid way
- even the most ambitious study only obtains relatively small samples of behavior that may provide a somewhat distorted view of a person’s true characteristics.

80
Q

______validity refers to the ability of a given test to predict real world outcomes. For example, a measure of openness to new experiences should be related to one’s desire to engage in unconventional activities.

A

criterion

81
Q

The tendency to see or present ourselves in an overly favorable manner is called the ______.

A

self-enhancement bias

82
Q

When he plays baseball against less-skilled kids younger than himself, Atohi sees himself as being a particularly good player. When he plays with older kids, Atohi feels that he is not very good at the game. This difference demonstrates the ______effect.

A

reference group

83
Q

When informant ratings are used to assess the personalities of children, who is most likely to be the informant?

A

parent or teacher

84
Q

When our actions are affected by desires or impulses that are outside of our awareness, we would say that they have been impacted by ______motives.

A

implicit

85
Q

Facet examples for OCEAN

A

Openness
* Fantasy prone
* Open to Feelings
* Diverse behaviours
* New & different ideas
* Various values & beliefs

Conscientiousness
* Competent
* Orderly
* Dutiful
* Achievement oriented
* Self-disciplined
* Deliberate

Extraversion
* Sociable
* Warm
* Assertive
* Active
* Excitement-seeking
* Positive emotionality

Agreeableness
* Trusting
* Straightforward
* Altruistic
* Compliant
* Modest

Neuroticism
* Anxious
* Angry
* Depressed
* Self-conscious
* Impulsive
* Vulnerable

PSYCH 100 Exam Winter Review (21 decks)

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