Week 15: Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Aging Flashcards
Learning Objectives:
- Describe major features of physical, cognitive, and social development during adolescence.
- Understand why adolescence is a period of heightened risk taking.
- Be able to explain sources of diversity in adolescent development.
Define Adolescence
a period of transformation, primarily, in terms of physical, cognitive, and social-relational change.
Developmental stage that has been defined as starting with puberty and ending with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10–20).
Adolescence has evolved historically, with evidence indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys.
emerging adulthood time period
one changes out of adolescence and into adulthood, occurring from approximately ages 18 to 29
Adolescence - Physical change
Puberty
growth spurt in height, growth of pubic and underarm hair, and skin changes (e.g., pimples). Boys also experience growth in facial hair and a deepening of their voice. Girls experience breast development and begin menstruating. These pubertal changes are driven by hormones, particularly an increase in testosterone for boys and estrogen for girls.
Cognitive Improvements during early adolescence (4)
attention
memory
processing speed
metacognition
Dopamine
produces feelings of pleasure
During adolescence, people tend to do whatever activities produce the most dopamine, without fully considering the consequences of such actions.
Psychological control
Parents’ manipulation of and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways.
homophily
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves.
Deviant peer contagion
The spread of problem behaviors within groups of adolescents.
Ex. laughing in inappropriate settings
What are Crowds
Adolescent peer groups characterized by shared reputations or images.
In contrast to friendships (which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions
Adolescents & romantic relationships
Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school
Four identity statuses in identity formation
- foreclosure
- identity diffusion
- moratorium
- identity achievement
Foreclosure
Individuals commit to an identity without exploration of options
Identity diffusion
Adolescents neither explore nor commit to any roles or ideologies.
moratorium
State in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made identity commitments.
Identity achievment
Individuals have explored different options and then made commitments.
Patterson’s (1982) “early vs. late” starter model of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior
Early Starter
antisocial behavior begins during childhood
*greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters.
*Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts.
Patterson’s (1982) “early vs. late” starter model of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior
Late Starter
antisocial behavior begins during adolescence
*experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents’ own antisocial behavior.
Moffitt’s (1993) life-course persistent vs. adolescent-limited model
Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.
Starting in early adolescence, compared with males…
females have rates of anxiety that are about ____ as high and rates of depression that are ___ to ____ times as high
(1) 2x
(2) 1.5x
(3) 3x
prevalence rates for specific phobias are about __% in children and __%–__% in adults but __% in adolescents.
(1) 5
(2) 3
(3) 5
(4) 16
Stress “Misery loves company” in adolescence
Depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress
*intensified for girls
Factors for success in academic achievement
- Interpersonal factors: parental engagement in adolescents’ education
- Intrapersonal factors: intrinsic motivation
- Institutional factors: school quality
differential susceptibility
Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences.
Last year, Johnny was an athlete at school. This year, he has tried fitting in with the theater kids. He can’t decide what identity feels right to him and is experiencing ______.
Identity maratoriam
According to Erik Erickson, the most important conflict in adolescence involves what?
Identity formation
Genetic factors make individuals more or less responsive to environmental influences. This phenomenon is known as ______.
differential susceptibility
Fifteen-year-old Charlie is prone to risky behavior because his dopaminergic system has developed to reward him, but his ______ is still immature.
prefrontal cortex
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves. What is the name for this condition?
homophily
Learning Objectives:
Explain where, when, and why a new life stage of emerging adulthood appeared over the past half-century.
Identify the five features that distinguish emerging adulthood from other life stages.
Describe the variations in emerging adulthood in countries around the world.
the median marriage age for women in the United States and in most other industrialized countries in 1960 was around __.
The median marriage age for men was around __, and married couples usually had their first child about ____ year after their wedding day.
20 year olds
22 year olds
One
- The median age for women to get married NOW is 27
- The median age for men to get married NOW is 29
Emerging Adulthood
A new life stage extending from approximately ages 18 to 25, during which the foundation of an adult life is gradually constructed in love and work. Primary features include identity explorations, instability, focus on self-development, feeling incompletely adult, and a broad sense of possibilities.
*new developmental phase
In industrialized countries young people just out of high school and into their 20’s are spending more time experimenting with potential directions for their lives.
New way of transitioning into adulthood is different from generations in the past
A higher proportion of young people than ever before—about (1)__% in the United States—pursue education and training beyond secondary school
Job instability
In the United States, the average number of job changes from ages 20 to 29 is (2)_______.
(1) 70
(2) Seven
Arnett - Five features of emerging adulthood
- the age of identity explorations
- the age of instability
- the self-focused age
- the age of feeling in-between
- the age of possibilities
*OG study based on research involving about 300 Americans between ages 18 and 29 from various ethnic groups, social classes, and geographical regions
OECD meaning + countries
+Population
Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, comprised of the world’s wealthiest countries.
Population: 1.2 billion (18% of the total world population)
United States
Canada
Western Europe
Japan
South Korea
Australia
New Zealand
Industrialized countries
+population
The economically advanced countries of the world, in which most of the world’s wealth is concentrated.
Population: 1.2 billion (18% of the total world population)
United States
Canada
Western Europe
Japan
South Korea
Australia
New Zealand
non-industrialized countries
The less economically advanced countries that comprise the majority of the world’s population. Most are currently developing at a rapid rate.
*much lower median incomes; much lower median educational attainment; and much higher incidence of illness, disease, and early death.
tertiary education
Education or training beyond secondary school, usually taking place in a college, university, or vocational training program.
individualism
*Western
Belief system that exalts freedom, independence, and individual choice as high values.
collectivism
*Asian
Belief system that emphasizes the duties and obligations that each person has toward others.
United States & Europe important marker for adulthood
financial independence
Asian Culture important marker for adulthood
Capable of supporting parents financially
What can societies do to enhance the likelihood that emerging adults will make a successful transition to adulthood?
Expand the opportunities for obtaining tertiary education.
*make it possible for every emerging adult to receive tertiary education, free of charge.
Darius is a college senior who is thinking about what might come next for him after graduation. He feels there are many options available and that he will achieve want he wants in his life, despite the fact that he has yet to hold a full-time position. What part of emerging adulthood best describes what Darius is experiencing?
the age of possibilities
Learning Objectives:
Explain research approaches to studying aging.
Describe cognitive, psychosocial, and physical changes that occur with age.
Provide examples of how age-related changes in these domains are observed in the context of everyday life.
heterogeneity
Inter-individual and subgroup differences in level and rate of change over time.
*differences in rates of biogenetic and psychological aging and the sociocultural contexts and history of people’s lives
Life course theories
Theory of development that highlights the effects of social expectations of age-related life events and social roles; additionally considers the lifelong cumulative effects of membership in specific cohorts and sociocultural subgroups and exposure to historical events.
cohorts
Group of people typically born in the same year or historical period, who share common experiences over time; sometimes called a generation (e.g., Baby Boom Generation).
Life span theories
Theory of development that emphasizes the patterning of lifelong within- and between-person differences in the shape, level, and rate of change trajectories.
*gain, maintenance, loss, level, and rate of change
intra- and inter-individual differences
Different patterns of development observed within an individual (intra-) or between individuals (inter-).
longitudinal stiudies
Research method that collects information from individuals at multiple time points over time, allowing researchers to track cohort differences in age-related change to determine cumulative effects of different life experiences.
cross-sectional studies
Research method that provides information about age group differences; age differences are confounded with cohort differences and effects related to history and time of study.
psychometric approach
Approach to studying intelligence that examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning.
- Fluid intelligence
- Crystalized intelligence
Fluid intelligence
Type of intelligence that relies on the ability to use information processing resources to reason logically and solve novel problems.
Crystallized intelligence
Type of intellectual ability that relies on the application of knowledge, experience, and learned information.
recall
Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information without the help of external cues.
Working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.
*becomes less efficient as we age
Processing speed
The speed with which an individual can perceive auditory or visual information and respond to it.
*Declines as we age
inhibitory functioning
Ability to focus on a subset of information while suppressing attention to less relevant information.
*Declines as we age
Hearing & Visions _____ as we age
decline
recognition
Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information with the assistance of cues.
Older adults often perform as well if not better than young adults on tests of word knowledge or vocabulary. With age often comes _______
expertise
Aging & Personality Big Five Traits
- extraversion
- neuroticism
- conscientiousness
- agreeableness
- openness to new experience
autobiographical narratives
A qualitative research method used to understand characteristics and life themes that an individual considers to uniquely distinguish him- or herself from others.
*“Tell me something about yourself. Who are you?” “What are your hopes for the future?”
subjective age
A multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels and into which age group a person categorizes him- or herself
age identity
How old or young people feel compared to their chronological age; after early adulthood, most people feel younger than their chronological age.
self-perceptions of aging
An individual’s perceptions of their own aging process; positive perceptions of aging have been shown to be associated with greater longevity and health.
social network
Network of people with whom an individual is closely connected; social networks provide emotional, informational, and material support and offer opportunities for social engagement.
Antonucci’s Convoy Model of Social Relations
Theory that proposes that the frequency, types, and reciprocity of social exchanges change with age. These social exchanges impact the health and well-being of the givers and receivers in the convoy.
Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Theory proposed to explain the reduction of social partners in older adulthood; posits that older adults focus on meeting emotional over information-gathering goals, and adaptively select social partners who meet this need.
global subjective well being
Individuals’ perceptions of and satisfaction with their lives as a whole.
hedonic treadmill
*neutral baseline for well-being
life events such as marriage or divorce can temporarily influence well-being, but people quickly adapt and return to a neutral baseline
Hedonic well-being
Component of well-being that refers to emotional experiences, often including measures of positive (e.g., happiness, contentment) and negative affect (e.g., stress, sadness).
Ryff’s model of psychological well-being
- six core dimensions of positive well-being.
- autonomy
- environmental mastery
- personal growth
- positive relations with others
- purpose in life
- self-acceptance
Average life expectancy
Mean number of years that 50% of people in a specific birth cohort are expected to survive. This is typically calculated from birth but is also sometimes re-calculated for people who have already reached a particular age (e.g., 65)
successful ageing
three components
- avoiding disease
- maintaining high levels of cognitive and physical functioning
- active engagement in social and productive activities.
Ethan decides to retire from his career at the age of 52, Brandon at 61, and Akiva keeps working into his seventies. These differences reflect the ______ in the lives of adults.
heterogeneity
One of the primary types of research in developmental psychology is the ______ study, in which the same people are observed at multiple points in time.
longitudinal
Dr. Rainwood conducts research examining the differences between people of different ages. She always remembers that this particular kind of research, called ______ studies, can be susceptible to effects related to history and the time of her research.
cross-sectional
Katrina has noticed that her mother seems less able to focus on answering a specific question while simultaneously suppressing attention to less relevant information. This skill, called ______, normally declines as people age.
inhibitory functioning
Brendon is taking a multiple-choice test in his psychology course. Brendon has to compare each of five possible answers to information he has previously learned, and then identify the correct response. What kind of task is this?
recognition
Which of the following personality traits has been found to predict important life outcomes, such as job success, health, and longevity?
conscientiousness
Bess is 76 years old, and finds that she is happier with just a few close friends. Bess’s behavior is consistent with Carstensen’s ______ theory.
Socioemotional Selectivity
There are many factors that contribute to the increased life expectancy in the 20th century. Evidence from twin studies finds that about ______ percent of the variance in life spans is accounted for by genes.
25
When is adolescence?
puberty – adulthood
* 10 - 20yrs
- time of physical, cognitive & social change
Physical change & The Tanner
Scale
Categorizes stages of puberty according
to hormonally-driven physiological
changes
*Development of pubic hair, breast tissue,
testicular volume
Boaz 1999 on puberty
puberty starts earlier than it used to
*Potential Influences
- Better nutrition
- Adiposity
- More father absence (not well evidenced)
- Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
puberty and cognitive changes
- cognitive processes continue until mid 20’s
- cognition increases in complexity
*concrete -> abstract - executive functions
*prefrontal cortex
*attention - processing speed
metacognition
Prefrontal cortex is ____ to mature
what does it do?
last
*seat of behavioural inhibition
*Improvement in self-regulation and future orientation (delay of gratification)
* In adolescence, dopamine is highest. (risk-taking, sensation seeking)
Aggression in adolescence
Due to increased dopamine, we partake in increased risk-taking.
- autonomy of parents
- impact of peers
Homophily
we want to be with people like us
- associating with like others
*tends to be superficial
Deviant peer contagion
Peer approval of deviant behaviour
Cumulative continuity
aggression maintained because of its consequences
Interactional continuity
Aggression maintained because of responses from others
short term escalation of aggression
Late Onset
sudden, rapid increase in previously non-aggressive youth
- Pattern observed for direct aggression
long term escalation of aggression
Late Onset
Slow, gradual increase in frequency and
severity of aggressive acts during youth
- Pattern observed for violent acts (assault,
sexual assault)
ADOLESCENCE-LIMITED Aggression
Child FEELS like they’re more mature than age (they’re probably not)
- Normative pattern emerging at puberty
LIFE-COURSE PERSISTENT Aggression
Aggravated by impoverished environment
Ex. oppression, starvation
- Emerges in early childhood
- Assc. w/ violent offences in adulthood
clear self-concept
I know who I am
Arnett Realms of identity (3)
(age: 18-25)
- Love
- Work
- Worldview - beliefs & values
Fluid intelligence
reasoning, abstraction, problem-solving
Crystalized intelligence
facts, skills, acquired experience
Primacy effects
better memory for things that come first
Recency effects
better remember words last in a list (more recent)
Why do we forget middle of a list?
interference
proactive - because of beginning
retroactive - because of the end
Recognition test
another form of testing memory
Serial position effect
the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.
On average, after age 40 people report feeling __% younger than their actual age
20%
