Week 2: Behavioural, Need and Cognitive Theories Flashcards
What are the three overarching motivational schools and their respective theories?
- Behavioural Theories - Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory
- Need Theories - Hierarchy of Needs, 2-Factor Theory, Acquired Needs Theory, Self-Determination, Cognitive Evaluation
- Cognitive Theories - Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory, Regulatory Focus Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Social Learning Theory
What is the main behavioural theory?
Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory
According to Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory, you learn behaviour in two ways. What are they?
Reinforcement: providing rewards for desired behaviour
Punishment: administer punishment for undesired behaviour
Why is positive or negative reinforcement effective in Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory?
It strengthens a response and increases the probability of repetition
Why is punishment and extinction effective in Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory?
it weakens the behaviour and decreases its frequency
In Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory, what is the best technique to use in the workplace and why?
Research suggests that reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment, because
1) punished behaviours tends to be temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed
2) punishment may also produce undesirable side effects like suffering relationships
How can managers motivate employees to behave in ways that will benefit the organisation? Base your answers on Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory.
one way is shaping behaviours by systematically reinforcing each successive step towards a desired response
example: an employee always turns up 30 minutes late and one day he turns up only 20 minutes late. A manager can reinforce the improvement as the behaviour is now more closely to the desired behaviour.
What are the five need theories?
Hierarchy of Needs 2 Factor Acquired Needs Self-Determination Cognitive evaluation theory
Which theory is best known among the need theory, yet does not receive a lot of support?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory there are 5 hierarchical needs in every human being and in the workplace. Name them in the right order from bottom to top.
Lower Order and External:
- Physiological need
- Safety need
Higher Order and Internal:
- Social need
- Esteem need
- Self-Actualisation need
In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, what do the higher order needs entail?
- Social: interpersonal relations, parties
- Esteem: promotions, recognition
- Self-Actualisation: using abilities to the fullest potential
In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, what do the lower order needs entail?
- Physiological: basic pay level to pay for rent and food
2. Safety: job security, health insurance
According to Maslow, as each need is satisfied, the next need becomes more ____. That means that the lowest level of unmet needs in the hierarchy…
Maslow suggests that in order to motivate someone, you therefore need to focus on….
dominant
is the prime motivator
satisfying the needs at or above the level the person currently at
How is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory flawed?
he delivered no empirical substantiation for the theory
Leaning on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, later research has shown that in the global economy, employees in different countries may have different needs and can therefore be motivated in different way.
Name four examples of this.
- people in greece and japan are especially motivated by safety needs
- sweden, norway and denmark are especially motivated by belongingness needs
- in developing countries, physiological and safety needs may be expected to be important motivators
- conversely, in wealthy countries, esteem and self-actualisation needs may be expected to be more important motivators
In Herzbergs 2-Factor theory, there are two constructs leading to either satisfaction or dissatisfaction. What are those two constructs and why can they not be one dimension?
Hygiene factors: the continuum between no dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction
Motivators: the continuum between no satisfaction and satisfaction
They should not be seen as one because the absence of e.g. hygiene factors does not automatically mean a person is satisfied
Name three examples of Hygiene factors (2-Factor Theory)
company policies, salaries, work conditions
Name three examples of Motivators factors (2-Factor Theory)
growth, responsibility, achievement
According to Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory, satisfying ____ will not increase motivation, but focussing on ____ will.
hygiene factors, work itself
Why has Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory been criticised?
mainly due to flawed methodology
In what two ways does Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory contribute to motivational research?
- it helped researchers focus their attention on the important distinction between intrinsic (motivator needs) and extrinsic motivation (hygiene needs)
- his theory promoted researchers and managers to study how jobs could be designed or redesigned so they are intrinsically motivating
How did Herzberg come to his results on the 2-Factor Theory?
he asked people to describe in detail situations when they had felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs and categorised them according to extreme satisfaction and extreme dissatisfaction
According to McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, a person has one of three main motivations that drive their being. What are they?
- Need for Achievement (nAch)
- Need for Power (nPow)
- Need for Affiliation (nAff)
In McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, the Need for Achievement (nAch) is peoples driving motivation to ____, to perform _____, and to meet _____.
People with high need for achievement will avoid ___ risk activities with ____ chance of gain and will avoid ____ risk activities ____ potential to failure.
excel, perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards of excellence
low, no
high, high
In McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, the Need for Power (nPow) describes a persons need to ____.
Those with power as their primary motivation don’t care for approval or recognition, they just want _____ and ____.
control or influence others
agreement and compliance
In McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory the Need for Affiliation (nAff) describes those who seek out …
Those with affiliation as their primary motivation looks for ____. They tend to ___, shy away from standing out, and may need ____ and ____.
friendly and close interpersonal relationships
harmony
conform, approval and recognition
What makes a good leader, based on McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory?
those with high need for power and low need for affiliation are linked to managerial success as caring about whether you are liked or not will become problematic in decision-making
How much empirical support does McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory get?
a lot, it has the best research support of the last three theories (2-factor, hierarchy of needs, self-determination) but it is not easy to measure
According to the Self-Determination theory, employees are motivated by what three needs?
Need for autonomy
Need for competence
Need for relatedness
In the Self-Determination theory, the need for autonomy means what?
to have control and not be constantly monitored
In the Self-Determination theory, the need for competence means what?
to have a sense of mastery over your job
In the Self-Determination theory, the need for relatedness means what?
to feel connected to others
According to the Self-Determination theory, the need for autonomy is most important for ____ and ____ outcomes.
The need for competence is most predictive of ____.
attitudinal, affective
performance
The Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a derivative of what other need theory?
Self-Determination Theory
According to the Cognitive Evaluation Theory, the need for autonomy (SDT Theory) can be impeded by what?
What does that mean?
extrinsic rewards
allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that is intrinsically motivated tends to decrease the overall level of motivation IF the rewards are seen as controlling
e.g. if you start paying volunteers, they won’t want to do it anymore
What are the five cognitive theories?
expectancy, equity, regulatory focus, goal-setting, social learning
Behavioural motivation theories assume that all behaviours are learned through ____, which occurs through interaction with and stimuli from ____.
conditioning, the environment
Need motivation theories explain why _____
a person must act, but without explanation of why actions are chosen
Cognitive motivation theories understand employee’s motivation by _____.
understanding their thought processes
Vrooms Expectancy Theory is the basis of which leadership theory?
House and Dressler’s Path-Goal theory
What is the main idea in Vrooms Expectancy Theory ?
- expectancy: individual effort will lead to good performance (appraisal)
- instrumentality: a good performance (appraisal) will lead to organisational rewards that are
- valence: valued by the employee
- Organisational rewards will go in line with and lead to the fulfilment of personal goals
What is the effect when one of the relationships in Vrooms Expectancy Theory is hurt?
motivation suffers
Explain why some employees have low motivation and use Vrooms Expectancy Theory to support your answer.
Some employees may have low motivation since
- expectancy: maximum effort doesn’t necessarily lead to good performance appraisals
- instrumentality: good performance appraisal doesn’t necessarily lead to rewards
- valence: organisational rewards are not always personally attractive
Under which circumstances can Vrooms Expectancy theory work?
- Its more valid in situations where effort-performance and performance rewards linkages are clearly perceived by the individual. Path-goal makes sure to point out these relationships and makes sure they are met and valued.
- If individuals were actually rewarded for performance rather than for example seniority or job difficulty, expectancy theory might be more valid
In Adams Equity Theory, motivation is determined by?
our perception of how fair the input/output ratio is compared to a referent
In Adams Equity Theory, employees compare their ratios of input-output outcomes with those of a referent such as
a similar other, previous self (in an old job) and ones own expectations
In Adams Equity Theory, input-output fairness is determined by _____.
When ratios are equal, a state of _____ exists, and the situation is considered _____.
When ratios are unequal, _____ exists due to _____.
social comparisons with a referent
equity, fair
tensions, inequity
Sophie is contributing just as much as her colleague, but gets more outcomes. Sophie is experiencing ______ according to Adams Equity Theory.
overpayment inequity
Daniel is contributing more input as his colleague, but gets the same outcomes. According to Adams Equity Theory, Daniel is experiencing ______.
underpayment inequity
Sophie is contributing more input than Daniel, but also gets more outcomes than him. She is experiencing _____.
equity
In Adams Equity Theory, under-rewarded states cause ____, while over-rewarded states cause ____.
anger, guilt
According to Adams Equity Theory, what should you do when you feel like motivation is down?
people are sensitive to equity and fairness, so explore weather equity unfairness is the cause of it and restore a balance
In what four ways do employees react when they perceive unfairness?
- they change their input or output
(less/more effort and lower/higher quality) - they distort perceptions of self or the referent
(maybe my performance isn’t good or maybe her job isn’t as easy as i thought it was) - choose a different referent
(nevertheless i am still doing much better than my neighbour) - leave the field
According to Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, people are motivated to either ______ and/or ______.
avoid pain (prevention focus)
approach pleasure (promotion focus)
Higgins Regulatory Focus theory leans on what principle?
the hedonic principle
In Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, Promotion-oriented people are driven by _____. They are sensitive towards _____ outcomes and find success and pleasure in ____. They feel pain and like they failed when they are confronted with _____. Promotion-oriented people are characterised by _____.
overarching goal: accomplishment positive gains non-gains eagerness
In Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, Prevention-oriented people are driven by _____. They are sensitive towards _____ outcomes and find success and pleasure in ____. They feel pain and like they failed when they are confronted with _____. Prevention-oriented people are characterised by _____.
overarching goal: safety negative non-losses losses vigilance/anxiousness
Are Higgins Regulatory Focuses (promotion/prevention orientation) chronic or situational?
both, they can always be the same for one person, suggesting you are born with it or they can be situational, depending on the situation
Prevention-oriented people need ____ in Higgins Regulatory Focus theory.
clearly achievable goals
Promotion-oriented people need ____ and ____ in Higgins Regulatory Focus theory.
challenge, learning
According to Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory, one needs what to achieve higher performance?
specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback (rather than vague goals with no feedback)
under the condition that the person accepts the goal
In Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory, why do the goals need to be challenging?
because they
- focus and direct attention
- energise the person to work harder in order to attain goals
- help to increase persistence
- force people to find better and more efficient strategies
In Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory, long-term goals provide ____, while short-term goals provide ____.
direction (vision, strategy, e.g. successful career)
drive (KPIs, e.g. pass master)
In Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory, the relationship between specific and difficult goals and performance is moderated by what five variables?
(self-generated) feedback goal commitment goal importance self-efficacy task complexity
In Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory, what happens after one has achieved a certain goal/performance?
If one is satisfied with the results, the willingness to commit to new challenges goes up
(which again influences how strong the moderators will be in the next challenge -> self-efficacy)
Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory works differently in other cultures. In cultures with higher power distances, _____ goals are more motivating.
moderate
Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory describes 4 mechanisms that can also influence the strength of relationship between difficult, specific goals and performance outcomes. What are they?
Choice/Direction
Effort
Persistence
Strategies
How is Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory often put into practice?
one way is management by objectives (MBO)
Management by objectives (MBO) describes 4 levels on which objectives are set. What are they?
Overall organisational objectives
Divisional objectives
Departmental objectives
Individual objectives
In management by objectives one translates _____ into specific objectives for each ____.
One has to assure company-wide _____ and _____ of goals, vision, etc.
oVerall objectives, level
linearity, proportion
Four ingredients are common to management by objectives programs. What are they?
- goal specificity
- participation in decision-making
- explicit time periods to attain goals
- performance feedback
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory is based what other cognitive theory?
Locke and Lathams’ Goal-Setting Theory
In Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, we learn through what?
observation and direct experience, hence SOCIAL learning theory
we learn to do something by seeing someone else do it and gain the reward we value
In Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, those with high ____ will perform better and respond better to negative feedback.
_____ is the core element of both this theory and also complements goal-setting theory in a way that increased _____ leads to setting higher goals, which again leads to better performance.
self-efficacy
self-efficacy, confidence
In Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, one can increase self-efficacy in four ways, what are they?
- inactive mastery: gaining experience
- vicarious modelling: see someone else do the task
- verbal persuasion: someone convinces you of your skill
- arousal: getting energised and hyped (like athletes)
Why is Bandura’s Social Learning Theory not a behavioural, but a cognitive theory?
because it takes ones thought processes into account, not just conditioning and stimuli from the environment
higher self-efficacy is positively related to what three other variables?
greater confidence
greater persistence in the face of difficulty
better response to negative feedback
The intent-behaviour gap describes the gap between what people ______ and what people _____.
This is often cause by ____ and ____ and a lack of ____.
To decrease the gap, one should formulate appropriate ______, such as ‘if situation x arises, i will perform response y’.
say they want (and think they are doing); actually do
goal-setting paradox, procrastination, self-efficacy
implementation intentions
Implications for managers (summary):
- _____ wanted behaviours, aim to avoid _____.
- pay attention to the _____ of your followers, help them satisfy their most _____ one.
- reward, promote and treat followers fairly, based on their ____ and ____.
- set ____ and ____ goals, taking into account what type of goal _____ them the most.
- believe in your people and communicate this to increase _____ among them.
- reinforce, punishment
- needs, dominant
- contribution, effort
- specific, challenging, motivates
- self-efficacy
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
positive reinforcement is giving a reward for desired behaviour
negative reinforcements taking a bad consequence away when desired behaviour is shown (like removing restrictions from a well-behaving teenager)
What theory is oftentimes seen in parenting?
Skinners operant conditioning theory (behavioural theory)
