WEEK 1: CAUSE AND EFFECT

Question 1

What is chance?

Answer 1

The probability that something happened unpredictably without human intervention

Question 2

What is inference?

Answer 2

Making a generalization on the population based on a sample

Question 3

What is hypothesis testing?

Answer 3

Conducting a test of statistical significance and qualify the degree to which sampling variability may account for the results

Question 4

What is a P-value?

Answer 4

*A probability that results obtained occurred by chance
*The less likelihood that the results are by chance

Question 5

What is meant by co-founding?

Answer 5

*It means some risk factors may be responsible for at least some of the association under investigation.
*mixing of effects

Question 6

Give examples of common co-founders

Answer 6

*Age
*Sex
*Exposure to some risk factors

Question 7

Why worry about confounding?

Answer 7

*To avoid focusing on a different factor

Question 8

What is publication bias?

Answer 8

The tendency on the parts of the investigators, reviewers and editors to submit or accept manuscripts for publication based on the direction or strength of the study findings

Question 9

State the 9 criteria for cause and effect

Answer 9

1.Strength: a strong association as measured buy
2.Consistency: The association is consistent when results are replicated in different settings using different
3.Specificity: Causation is likely if a very specific population at a specific site and disease with no other likely explanation
4.Temporality: The disease should come after the cause
5.Biological gradient or dose response relationship: An increase in the amount of exposure should increase the risk
6. Biological plausibility: The association with currently accepted understanding of pathological processes
7.Coherence: The association should be compatible with existing theory and knowledge
8.Experiment
9.Consideration of alternate explanations