war

Question 1

when was the crimean war

Answer 1

1853-56

Question 2

longterm cause of the crimean war

Answer 2

The decline of the Ottoman Empire resulted in tensions between Russia and Britain/France.
* Ottoman decline was inevitable, the concern for the Great Powers was what should replace it. The **decline of the Ottomans would = a power vacuum in Europe. **
* Russia had long seen itself as a ‘Third Rome’ and had ambitions about controlling Constantinople, -Russia saw it as their duty to protect the Orthodox Christians living in South-Eastern Europe– gaining that land would give them a warm water port [port arthur]
* Britain and France were concerned, on the other hand, about Russia increasing it’s influence. They noted that Russian occupation of Constantinople would bring Russian influence into the Mediterranean, threatening their trade routes east to places like India.

Question 3

short term cause of crimean war

Answer 3

A dispute over Christian rights in the Holy Lands lead to tensions between Russia and France.

Question 4

military probs exposed by crimea

Answer 4

Army had poor quality leadership. Leaders were appointed based on* social class* [only nobles could achieve higher ranks].
Rifles & artillery were outclassed by British & French weapons. Russians used old smoothbore muskets. British were using rifled muskets with ‘Minie’ bullets
Army was exposed as inefficient - they suffered higher loses than the British and French [500,000 to 250,000]

Question 5

economic probs exposed by crimea

Answer 5

Highlighted Russia’s poor communication network. Russia did not use telegraph; while Britain and France did. In December 1854 a detachment of British Royal Engineers arrived to lay an underground cable the seven kilometres between Balaklava and Lord Raglan’s headquarters at Khutor.
Highlighted** Russia’s poor infrastructure** – e.g. No railways south of Moscow. Therefore took months to transport soldiers to the front
The steamship and the railway helped Britain and France logistically, the Russians used horse and carriage to supply their army.
British and French forces were supplied by modern industries, Russia lacked this

Question 6

social probs exposed by crimea

Answer 6

The army was ill-disciplined and composed of conscript serf army (Poorly fed and suffered with brutal punishments – hardly the most enthusiastic soldiers!]
– serfs in general

Question 7

political probs exposed by crimea

Answer 7

Russia’s status as a major power was in doubt – it failed where it had succeeded in 1812
Strength of the Romanov dynasty was linked with the strength of the army
Reluctance to reform political life had created a culture of not reforming society or the army…

Question 8

name of treaty following crimea and when

Answer 8

treaty of paris, 1856

Question 9

terms of the treaty of paris

Answer 9

• Duty to protect Christians in the Ottoman lands was handed to Western powers
• Russia ceded land to Moldavia
• Russia gave up claim as protector of the principalities [Moldavia and Wallachia]
• Russia was banned from maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea

Question 10

social refirms of crimea

Answer 10

emancipation

Question 11

political impact of crimea

Answer 11

The introduction of Zemstva in 1864 introduced local elections and a form of local government in Russia for the first time. Previously, all local matters were dealt with by nobles and their subject serfs. The Zemstva were local council elected by those who met the property qualifications. Most could vote but weighting was skewed towards the wealthier classes. Their role was exclusively local and mundane – upkeep of roads, emergency relief, etc. War had exposed the deficiencies in these areas. The significance of this reform is that elections were being held for the first time and that there was some room for decisions to be made by elected officials. Even if relatively minor[due to only having local impact], it represented something new and a potential efficiency in the manner in which Russia was being run.

Question 12

economic impact of crimean war

Answer 12

industrialisation - The War revealed how slowly Russia was able to mobilise its forces, which was primarily a transportation issue. This highlighted the need to construct railway and over the next 20 years Russia constructed around 20,000 km worth of track. Furthermore, Reutern’s reforms were built around the attempt to encourage foreign investment in Russia. JJ Hughes invested in steel and mining around Yuzovka.

Question 13

limit of impacts of crimea

Answer 13

all reforms were ultimately designed with the intention of strengthening Russian autocracy, not fundamentally changing it.
* selected some liberal and some social aspects of the West to implement in Russia, but he did not deviate from autocratic principles. Alexander II did not seek, for instance, to implement a Parliamentary system as in Britain. Neither did he introduce complete press freedoms. In this sense, reforms were largely limited to the social area. Furthermore, there were limits to the reforms that were introduced. Zemstva had limited powers. Emancipated serfs had to pay redemption payments.

Question 14

long term causes of Russo-turkish war

Answer 14

1. fate of the ottomans
2. russian pan-slavism [ leaders sought to unite the Slavic peoples and free them from the Ottomans.]

Question 15

when was the russo-turkish war

Answer 15

1877-78

Question 16

short term causes of the russo-turkish war

Answer 16

1. Orthodox Christian Rebellions in Ottoman Europe
2. Batak Massacre, 1876. – Ottoman troops had massacred around 7,000 Orthodox Christians after an uprising in Bulgaria. The brutal treatment of the uprising lead to international outcries both in Russia and around Europe [gave russia a reason to intervene]

Question 17

where was russia militarily successful in the RT war

Answer 17

November 1877, Russia captures Kars in the Caucuses
December 1877, Russia captures Plevna in Bulgaria after a prolonged siege [the engineering companies showed that Milyutins reforms were having an impact. They helped bridge the Danube in support of the siege

russia won war but not the peace

Question 18

what was the treaty after the RT war

Answer 18

Treaty of San stefano, 1878

Question 19

original terms of treaty of San Stefano

Answer 19

• Regaining land lost in Bessarabia lost during the Crimean War
• Expanding into the Caucuses
• War reparations
• Independence of Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro
• A ‘large’ Bulgaria

Question 20

who were offended by the treaty of San stefano and why

Answer 20

Yet, the terms offended the Western powers, in particular Britain. Britain viewed the Balkans as a region of national interest and so sought to maintain a balance of power in the region. From Britain’s perspective, the peace Treaty unbalanced power in the region in the favour of Russia. Hence, international pressures lead to the treaty being revised at the Berlin Conference in 1878

Question 21

where and when was the treaty of San stefano changed

Answer 21

Berlin Conference in 1878

Question 22

terms of revised treaty of san stefano

Answer 22

Britain took control of Cyprus to strengthen its influence in the region
Bulgaria became smaller

Question 23

impact of san stefano being revised

Answer 23

The Conference of Berlin illustrated that, whilst Russia could defeat the declining Ottomans, it was unwilling and unable to stand up to Western European interests. In this sense, despite victory, Russia continued to have only a limited influence in Europe. Despite winning a War, it was forced to listen to the Great Powers of Europe re-draw there lines of the map that that War had decided.

Question 24

economic impact of RT war

Answer 24

Alexander III had seen on the ground the importance of powerful infrastructure and a strong industrial base. In order to stand up to Western powers in the future, Russia needed to continue to improve its economy. Britain’s intervention in the peace showed that Russia continued to be a long way behind the Great Powers. **These lessons helped to inform the more protectionist policies pursued by Vyshnegradsky and the rapid industrialisation seen under Witte. **

Question 25

SOCIAL imoact of RT war

Answer 25

The War had a less significant impact than the Crimean War. It did not lead to a series of major reforms. However, there was some change, but these largely came during Alexander III’s reign.
– the lesson that for an empire to be strong, it must be culturally united. The problem the Ottomans were having was that their empire was too diverse – too many different religions, too many different languages and cultures. These ethnic tensions led to conflict and revolts. In Russia he saw a parallel. This lesson **resulted in a significant increase in Russification in Russia during his reign. **

Question 26

why did RT have little impact

Answer 26

Most importantly, Russia won! Yes, the peace was somewhat humiliating, Russia did still gain land and defeat the Ottomans in a series of engagements.
The nature of the War enhanced the Tsar’s reputation, not damage it. Russian intervention to* support its ‘slavic brothers and sisters’ was seen as heroic*, helping to foster nationalism and support.
Russia was not directly fighting a more powerful Western power and did make some gains in the peace.
Unlike other wars it did not cause discontent at home [e.g. compared to Russo-Japanese or ww1]

Question 27

when was the russo-japanese war

Answer 27

1904-5

Question 28

long term cause of Russo-japanese war

Answer 28

the fate of the chinese empire
* China had been a superpower in the 1700s, it’s economy was more developed than Europe’s.
* Yet, China, unlike W. Europe, did not undergo the industrial revolution.
* This left China vulnerable to W. European imperial interests
* – century of humilation in china

Question 29

when was china’s century of humiliation

Answer 29

1839-1949

Question 30

what was the century of humiliation

Answer 30

**Opium Wars. **The humiliations started with British victories in the Opium Wars and finished with the Chinese Communist Party’s victory in the Civil War.
As the century went on, **China lost influence over Vietnam (to France), Siberia (to Russia), Korea (to Japan). **Major coastal cities were also lost to Western powers (e.g. Hong Kong to Britain).

Question 31

using it do advantage themselves [japan]

chinese decline

Answer 31

**Japan had transformed since 1868 – significant reforms + industrialisation. **
The Japanese had undergone a rapid change since the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The restoration consolidated Japan under the banner of an empire, but also opened Japan to Western-style industrialisation.

Japan viewed Manchuria and Korea as their ‘sphere of interest’. With this,** Japan sought to expand into Korea and Manchuria, occupying much of the region in the 1890s. **

Question 32

using it do advantage themselves [russia]

Answer 32

• Expanded into East Siberia in the 1850s/60s.
• Trans-Siberian railway extended their influence (1893-1903).
• Russia gained a lease over Port Arthur from China in 1897 – a warm water port!!

Question 33

short term causes of RJ war

Answer 33

boxer rebellions
* in 1900 a series of revolts broke out by Chinese forces against Western imperialism.
* Unusually, the West united under an 8 nation alliance – Britain, Germany, Austro-Hungary, Russia, USA, Italy, France, and Japan. They all sent troops to China and crushed the revolt
* Russia occupies Manchuria 1901-1905 and refused to leave
* Japan became concerned that Russia was seeking to dominate Manchuria and Korea and therefore decided to attack Port Arthur.

Question 34

key events of RJ war

Answer 34

1.January 1904 – Japanese Port strike of Port Arthur, disabling Russia’s Pacific fleet
2. April 1904 – Jan 1905 – The Japanese blockade and siege of Port Arthur by land and sea. The Russian fleet in the pacific is forced to remain in port. 60,000 Russia soldiers are trapped in Port. – russian surrender
3. February 1905 –** Battle of Mukden. The Japanese push further into Manchuria and defeat the Russians. 270,000 Japanese against 290,000 Russians. **Russian troops forced to retreat **to northern Manchuria.

Question 35

treaty following RJ war

Answer 35

treaty of portsmouth

Question 36

terms of treaty of portsmouth

Answer 36

Russia** gave up its lease of Port Arthur to Japan **
Russia conceded South Sakhalin to Japan
Russian troops had to withdraw from Manchuria
**Southern Manchurian Railway ceded to Japan **
Japanese sovereignty over Korea recognised by Russia

Question 37

immediate effects of RJ war

Answer 37

1. the russian state was humiliated –Racist European attitudes assumed an easy Russian victory; this defeat could not be blamed on the issue of serfdom, or even really the issue of industrialisation.
2. the Russo-Japanese War contributed to large-scale social unrest = 1905 Revolution. –

These two factors created additional pressures for political reform.

Question 38

political impact of RJ war

Answer 38

led to oct manifesto 1905 –
* A national Parliament [the Duma]
* the legalisation of parties,
* civil liberties,
* male suffrage.
** BUT the Fundamental Laws of 1906 restricted impact and protected the autocracy**.

Question 39

Why did the Russo-Japanese War lead to political reform while Crimea and the Russo-Turkish War did not?

Answer 39

• War against Japan created social unrest, unlike in the previous wars
• Opposition from parties and workers in towns was stronger in 1905 than during the previous wars
• War exposed that in spite of economic and social change from previous wars, the problems continued, even against weaker Asian powers.
• This **suggested the problems were caused by political issues, not socio-economic ones. **

Question 40

economic issues exposed by RJ war

Answer 40

• In the far east Russia had relief on a single track of the Trans-Siberian railway to supply its army. **The track could reinforce just 35,000 men each month. **
• The weaknesses of the navy were exposed by their defeat in Tsushima.

Question 41

economic impact of RJ war

Answer 41

• Between 1905-1914 Russia underwent significant economic growth which, according to Peter Gatrell was driven largely by ‘re-armament’.
  Russia had to **rebuild almost its entire navy and continue to improve its transportation. **
• The result was a consistent **6% year-on-year growth rate. **

Question 42

long term causes of ww1

3

Answer 42

1. militarism: naval race between triple alliance [Germamy, austria hungary, italy] and the triple entente[britain, france, russia]
2. imperalism – competition over colonies ESP. G’s concern of being left behind
3. nationalism

Question 43

military failures of ww1

Answer 43

Militarily Russia struggled to compete with both Germany and Austro-Hungary. Early disasters in the** Battle of Tannenburg led to 90,000 Russians being captured by Germany** after the Russian Second Army was encircled. Disasters continued into 1915 where Russian officials orders the ‘Great Retreat’, abandoning Poland and much of Lithuania. By the end of 1916 the front was relatively stable but **Russia had lost 1.7 million soldiers and 2.4 million had been captured. **

Question 44

effect on the home front ww1

Answer 44

• Food and fuel shortages began to become a serious problem in the winter of 1916-17.
• By 1917 prices of goods in Petrograd had risen by 400% on pre-war levels
• Bread rations fell in Petrograd by 25% that winter
• Strikes increased from 211 in 1915 to 684 in 1916

Question 45

political effect of ww1

Answer 45

**Tsar’s decision irreversibly damaged autocracy **
1.N2 left Petrograd to become Commander in Chief near frontline.
2.Nicholas refused to work with the Progressive Bloc in the Duma in 1915.
WW1 LED TO TWO REGIME CHANGES; FEB REV, OCT REV

Question 46

N2 left Petrograd to become Commander in Chief near frontline

WW1 damaging autocracy

Answer 46

• Blamed for military failures
• Nicholas’ absence created a political vacuum – public believed this was filled by Rasputin and Tsarina
• Both not trusted
• Tsarina Germany
• Rumours of an affair
• Eventually, Rasputin was murdered by pro-Tsarist nobles to stop damage

Question 47

Nicholas refused to work with the Progressive Bloc in the Duma in 1915.

WW1 damaging autocracy

Answer 47

• PB was composed of 2/3s of Duma members and was a broad, moderate, patriotic body.
• N2 refused b/c of his adherence to autocracy.
• **Had N2 worked with the Duma blame could be shared **
• Instead, Duma opposition increased.

In 1916 Milyukov (Kadet leader) made a famous ‘stupidity or treason’ speech accusing the Tsar of one or the other.

Question 48

two views on impact of WW1

Answer 48

1. ‘optimists’ because they believe the Tsarist regime could have survived, without the destructive force of the war.
2. ‘pessimists’ because they believe the Tsarist regime was always doomed to fail.

Question 49

optimist view of ww1

Answer 49

The starting point of their argument is that the regime was strong in 1914, prior to the war. The regime had proven itself to be resilient to the forces of change which had exposed themselves in 1905, and by 1914 was relatively stable for the following reasons:
1. The Duma was beginning to work alongside the Tsar more
2. Opposition was repressed by the Okhrana
3. The social discontent of 1905 had not been repeated
4. The army remained loyal when disturbances broke out, as in the Lena Goldfields in 1912
5. The were relatively few strikes or protests in cities or the countryside.
**Therefore, they emphasise it is a turning point. **

War de-stabilised the regime and caused revolution because:
* Nicholas II was blamed for wartime failures
* Duma voiced opposition to the Tsar (stupidity or treason)
* Economic problems caused social discontent
* Soldier discontent in 1917

Question 50

pessimist view of WW1

Answer 50

the pessimists argue that the First World War was not a turning point because** Russia was already on the ‘road to revolution’ prior to 1914**. A revolution, in their view, was inevitable, but the he role of the war was instead to accelerate the process. Key points of the argument:
1. The Autocracy had lost public support in 1905
2. Nicholas II had proven he was unwilling to concede powers
3. The growth of urban discontent in the years 1900-1914 showed the revolutionary potential of the working class

Question 51

military impact of WW1 on the PG

Answer 51

1. On the frontline – in July 1917 the planned offensive [the Kerensky Offensive] failed. The aim was to attack the Austro-Hungarians and reclaim some land. Despite huge investment and extensive planning, the attack failed to gain land. Indeed, **Russian forces were pushed back further at the cost of 60,000 troops. **
2. Radicalisation of soldiers – In Petrograd, soldiers were increasingly willing to listen to Soviet Order no.1. the order stated that soldiers could only take orders if they conformed to the Soviet’s wishes. This destabilised the military. The Petrograd garrison was unwilling to be sent to the frontline, yet the needs of the Provisional Government required that.
3. Soldier desertion – 365,000 soldiers deserted the army between March and May 1917. Since the revolution, army discipline had collapsed. The Provisional Government had ended the death penalty for desertion, contributing to this collapse.

Question 52

domestic impact of WW1 on the PG

Answer 52

1. Worsening wartime conditions – inflation and food shortages, and strikes
2. the july days
3. the kornilov affair

Question 53

increase in opposition from WW1

Answer 53

Increase in Bolshevik Support - Only the Bolsheviks opposed the war from the start. They were the anti-war party. The Bolsheviks tapped into the problems created by the war with slogans like** ‘bread, peace and land’**, calling for an end to war. As the problems of the Provisional Government exposed themselves towards the end of 1917 this helped them to gain support. In February 1917 they had just 26,000 members. By October they had 250,000. Part of the reason for this was that the Bolsheviks were the only party who opposed the war effort. Furthermore, they had saved the revolution by stopping Kornilov’s attempted coup. War undermined the credibility of the other radical parties – Mensheviks, SRs, etc – these parties had rallied around the war effort and the provisional government.

Question 54

causes of the russian civil war

Answer 54

1. Bolshevik seizure of power. The seizure of power in October 1917 was seen as illegitimate. The closure of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918 illustrated that the Bolsheviks would rule in an authoritarian style with little regard for democracy. This meant that those political parties who had opposed the Bolsheviks – the liberals, the SRs, etc, saw the toppling of the Bolsheviks as the only viable route to a new regime.
2. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The end of Russia’s involvement in World War One was the trigger for the Civil War. the Treaty was seen by many former army generals as an **embarrassing surrender. **

Question 55

political impavt of R civil war

Answer 55

1. Centralisation of political power. The Politburo, which was created in 1919 became the key decision-making body within the party. Military discipline required to win the Civil War meant that the party institutions became bureaucratic and merely functions for implementing decisions made by the leadership.
2. Increased use of terror. The primary political impact of the Russian Civil War was that it sparked the harsh use of Red Terror, which was to become a feature of the Soviet system until the Khrushchev era. The outcome of this was to wipe out ‘external opposition’ from other political parties.
3. The regime adopted a militaristic approach to government. Victory required harsh discipline and loyalty.
4. The ‘totalitarian’ system – policies such as War Communism demanded a huge expansion in those being employed by the state. The army of bureaucrats [5.4 million of them in 1920] were tasked with the meticulous control of the economy and society to a level that Russia had not previously seen.

Question 56

economic impact of russian civil war

Answer 56

1. Industry was negatively impacted – production was 10-20% pre-war levels by 1921.

Question 57

social impact of russian civil war

Answer 57

1. The imposition of War Communism helped Russia win the war, but requisitioning contributed to the famine of 1921. 5 million people were killed in the famine.
2. De-urbanisation took place: population of cities fell by 50% as workers fled back to the countryside.
3. Religion was persecuted – 1,200 priests killed in the Red Terror
4. The Civil War was framed as a form of ‘class warfare’ – i.e. workers vs old elites. Whilst this was overly simplistic, the ‘Reds’ did persecute the old elites. Their wealth, property, status, etc was taken. There was even a form of class-based rationing in War Communism. Hence, ‘de-classing’ occurred and around 2 million people left Russia.
5. Opposition and poor conditions forced Lenin into the 1921 shift to the NEP. The introduction of forms of capitalism in the economy represented a very significant economic shift given Lenin’s Marxist aspirations.

Question 58

when was the russian civil war

Answer 58

1918-21

Question 59

causes of WW2

listed not explained

Answer 59

1. nazi expansion
2. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 1939
3. Operation Barbarossa

Question 60

nazi expansion

Answer 60

The Nazi regime was both expansionist and firmly anti-Communist. They sought to create ‘lebensraum’ for the ‘aryan race’. As part of the Nazi’s racist ideology, they viewed the people living to their east – the ‘slavs’ – as sub-human.

Furthermore, ideologically, the Nazis and Soviets were polar opposites. These **tensions, between fascists and communists erupted in the Spanish Civil War where the German and Italians supported Franco’s troops; whilst the Soviets supported the Republican troops **

Question 61

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 1939

Answer 61

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact** represented the Soviet Union’s final attempt to deal with the threat of Nazi expansionism**. Capitalist policies of appeasement throughout the 1930s meant there was no ‘united front’ against the rise of Fascism. Nazi Germany was able to conduct the Anschluss of Austria and the invasion of the Sudetenland with few international repercussions. As a result, the Soviets turned to direct dealings with the Nazis in order to ‘put off’ war with Germany. The Soviets new this would not last forever, but ***believed it was important to delay the war in the hope that further industrialisation could leave Russia better suited.

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ended up being the trigger for war because it saved Nazi Germany from a prolonged ‘two-front’ war. The pact was a non-aggression pact with a secret clause that the Soviet Union could place east Poland, the Baltic States, Finland and Bessarabia under its sphere of influence. Since Germany was now secure in the knowledge the Soviets would not attack Germany if Germany went to War in Poland, Germany felt confident enough to invade Poland quickly and then focus their attention West.

Between 1939-1941 the Soviet Union expanded into the Baltic States and eastern Poland and fought a costly and less successful war against Finland. Nevertheless, **the Soviet Union created something of a ‘buffer zone’ against Germany. **

Question 62

Operation Barbarossa

Answer 62

Operation Barbarossa was given approval by Hitler in December 1940. The operation was named after Frederick Barbarossa, a 12th-century Holy Roman emperor and German king. The operation put into action Nazi Germany’s ideological goal of conquering the western Soviet Union to repopulate it with Germans. But the plan also sought to help Germany continue their fight in the West. The idea was that conquered people would be used as slave labour for the Axis war effort while acquiring the oil reserves of the Caucasus as well as the agricultural resources of various Soviet territories. Eventually the operation began on 22 June 1941.

Question 63

key events in WW2

Answer 63

1. Jan-November 1942. German army makes huge advances in the south and reaches Stalingrad by August. German forces push south towards the Caucuses oilfields.
2. February 1943. A huge Soviet counter-offensive at Stalingrad encircles the German forces. This marks the turning point in the war.
3. July 1943. Battle of Kursk. The largest tank battle ever fought involving around 10,000 tanks in total. Soviet victory. From this moment the German army was continuously pushed back.
4. By the end of 1944 almost all former Soviet Land was recaptured.

Question 64

POLITICAL impact of ww2

Answer 64

considerable political continuity in the nature of the regime.
* 10 figures in the Politburo were the same in 1948 as they were in 1938
* The Leningrad Affair saw 200 party members purged for their support of Zhdanov.
* cult of personality enhanced
BUT: USSR’s status on the global stage and foreign affairs, there was considerable change. The war transformed the USSR into a global power, with a considerable sphere of influence over Eastern Europe
* military occupation of eastern europe as agreed the [Tehran Conference, Percentages Agreement, and the Yalta Conference]
* Churchill would later famously state that this drew up an iron curtain across Europe between the Capitalist West and the Communist East.

Question 65

economic impact of WW2

Answer 65

devastating impact economically on Russia.
* Stalin ordered a scorched earth policy to be implemented in 1941– resources and valuable materials that could not be transported were to be destroyed so they could not be used by the enemy.
* many of Russia’s towns and cities had been destroyed or severely damaged in the fighting. For instance, Leningrad underwent a 900 day siege and for prolonged periods the city was entirely cut-off from the rest of the USSR
* economic response was to revert back to the strategies of the 1930s: Five-Year Plans and Collectivisation. The Fourth Five Year Plan [46-50]
* Officially, 98,000 collective farms had been ransacked and ruined. After the War, ‘re-Collectivisation’ took place
* effect was a significant famine in 1947.

biggest impavt economically was tgis war: harshest 1940 labour decree