society: The impact of dictatorial regimes on the economy and society of the Russian Empire and the USSR

Question 1

what percentage of population was workers

1858, 1913, 1926, 1960

Answer 1

• 6% - 1858
• 18% - 1913
• 18% - 1926
• 49% - 1960

Question 2

workers housing under the tsars

urbanisation

Answer 2

The pace of urbanisation between 1890 and 1914 was very quick. As industrialisation increased, the demand for new workers increased with it and cities exploded in size. In those years’ major cities like Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Riga doubled in size. Workers moving to these growing towns and cities needed places to live, but this was largely left to the free market of businesses and individual workers, not state policy. **The state did not pursue a house-building programme to match the pace of industrial change. **

Question 3

failure to develop social hosuing led to bad living conditions

Answer 3

Worker ‘barracks’ were the norm. These were built by their employers. They lacked private space. Shift systems sometimes meant workers would share beds in rotation. 20-40 per building. Overcrowded. Unsanitary.

Public Health Crisis. Towns and cities became centres for endemic diseases, usually water-borne diseases. By 1914 Russia had 1,000 towns and just 200 of these had piped water and just 28 had a sewerage system. The mixing of waste water and ‘clean’ water was common. A Cholera outbreak caused 100,000 deaths in St. Petersburg alone in 1914.

Question 4

workers housing under lenin

Answer 4

immediately after the October Revolution, Lenin sought to improve the conditions for the workers whom he claimed to represent.** Large private housing were expropriated and turned into Kommunalka** – communal apartments. The local Soviets were put in charge of these buildings and distributed them based on family size. Typically, two to seven families shared a hallway, kitchen, and bathroom, but **had their own private bedrooms/living space. **

This represents a partial change because workers were now living in the old elites housing, representing some progress. However, communal living remained a norm.

Question 5

workers housing under stalin

Answer 5

Housing conditions in towns and cities worsened during Stalin’s Five-Year Plans. The focus on industrialisation once again came at the cost of quality of life.

Under the First Five-Year Plan, there was a 50% short-fall in housing. **
Result: *
This meant that many people who had **recently moved to cities were forced to live in their places of work, in barracks**, or in crowded tenements.
In **Magnitogorsk in 1931, around 25% lived in wood/mud huts* they had made (this a carry-over from their peasant way of life in the countryside).

Kommunalka continued BUT, Soviet policy was changed to allocate space rather than rooms. 25% of the population of Moscow lived in a room shared with another family.

Question 6

workers housing under khrushchev

Answer 6

• **Kommunalka abandoned **
• Hundreds of thousands of 5 storey flat blocks built. A* total of 108 million people moved into new apartments, 1956-65*
• Considerable increase in quality of life.
• Critics have branded them Khrushchyovka [Khrushchev Slums]. While it is true they were built of cheap, prefabricated concrete panels [which some criticise aesthetically] they represented a genuine improvement in living conditions.

Question 7

Was there more change or continuity in urban living conditions, 1855-1964?

Answer 7

There was a considerable degree of continuity in housing for much of the period. Overcrowding was common under the Tsarist barracks and in the Leninist/Stalinist Kommunalka. Similarly, **communal living in the form of barracks was normal throughout much of the period. **

Yet, it is worth highlighting the communists, particularly Lenin and Khrushchev had a greater positive impact than the other leaders. Khrushchev had the largest impact with his massive social housing schemes.
Lenin also had a noteworthy impact with the introduction of Kommunalka which allowed workers to occupy better homes than they had under the Tsars. The** primary reason the communists had a greater impact was their ideology.** Ideologically, communism was keenly interested in the conditions of ordinary people. Unfairness, poverty, and inequality were issues that Communist ideology strongly criticised. Hence, the Communist leaders were simply far more interested in improving conditions – and creating a state in the interest of the proletariat – than the Tsars were.

Question 8

what is the new work discipline

Answer 8

Factories introduced very harsh rules to maximise the production efforts of their employees. This involved long hours, shift work, strict rules of work (enforced by a foreman), and harsh punishments for wrongdoing [including fines and flogging]. Workers had very few rights and employment contracts. Employers prioritised profits.

Question 9

when was the factory inspectorate

Answer 9

1882

Question 10

impact of the factory inspectorate

Answer 10

There were only about 200 inspectors employed in any given year and they had** over 18,000 factories** to inspect. An impossible task!
Just **50% of factories were inspected in 1900 **
This meant that many factories could get around other laws

Question 11

when was the 11 hour working day enforced

tsars

Answer 11

1896

Question 12

impact of 11hour-working day enforced

Answer 12

11-hours days were still incredibly long, this did not change practice too much. Factories liked to keep operations going for 24 hours to maximise production. Shift rotations allowed this to continue.

Question 13

working conditions befire the new work discipline

Answer 13

Peasants were used to following ‘natures clock’ when working in the fields and rarely had a manager looking over them.

Question 14

working conditions improved under lenin

Answer 14

**The Workers’ Decrees on 1917 **set minimum wages and a maximum of 8 hour working day and gave workers the control of factories.

Rabkrin, est. 1920 [The Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate] was given the task the Factory Inspectorate had formerly had.

Question 15

2 major limits to progress under lenin regarding working conditions

Answer 15

Both have the same underlying cause. War Communism reintroduced labour discipline through party managers. Party managers controlled factories and sought to raise the productivity of the workers. They reintroduced fines and punishments for ill-discipline. Further, Rabkrin did little to improve conditions and often sided with the party managers / bureaucrats rather than the workers. The use of fines to punish workers for wrong-doings continued to be the norm.

The underlying theme connecting both of these issues was that** workers interests were subordinate to that of the Party. Despite claims of being a Dictatorship of the Proletariat, Lenin really created a dictatorship of the communist party.* Communist party interests – maintaining power, stability, progress – were not necessarily the same as worker’s interests – improved pay, conditions***, etc. Hence the interests of the party were taken more seriously than the interests of the workers.

Question 16

stalin workers conditions: contrast between image and reality

Answer 16

There was a significant contrast between the way the state promoted working and the nature of it. Propaganda during the Stalinist period celebrated the glory of work. Stakhanovite propaganda gave the impression that meeting one’s targets was doing a great duty to the community. Stakhanovites were celebrated as New Soviet People with superior moral and values to other Russians. They were examples for the people to follow.

Yet,** most workers lives became much worse under the harsh conditions of the Five-Year Plans**. All of the policies were geared towards maximising the production efforts of the workers.

Question 17

what was the harshet labour decree under the 5yr plans

Answer 17

the 1940 labour decree

Question 18

features of the 1940 labour decree

Answer 18

1. 20 minutes lateness was punishable by 6 months hard labour
2. Working week lengthened to 6 days
3. Changing jobs without authorisation was a criminal offence. This meant that the ‘free market’ of jobs was effectively over. Individuals had to work where the state directed them to work.
4. Missing work could lead to eviction

Stalin saw a reversal of this progress on hours as the Five-Year Plans demanded labour-intensive work to achieve targets. During the First Five-Year Plan [1928-1932] the working day averaged 10-12 hours.

One new aspect was the harsh treatment of workers deemed to be ‘wreckers’ by Stalin. ‘Wreckers’ were those who either:
Caused damage to the state or country, or
Failed to carry out duties – e.g. meeting targets.

Question 19

who were wreckers

Answer 19

Wreckers were deemed not only to be trouble-makers, but deemed as ideological enemies. If an individual failed to meet their production targets they were not only doing themselves a dis-service, but were letting their comrades down. ‘Wreckers’ were purged and frequently ended up in the Gulag system, while some high-profile figures suffered Show Trials like in the Industrial Party Trial of 1930 where 5 were sentenced to death.

Question 20

what did khrushchev introduce to replace stalins laws of the 1940’s

Answer 20

the 1956 labour laws

Question 21

key changes under the 1956 labour laws

khrushchev

Answer 21

1. Severe punishments for lateness and absenteeism stopped under Khrushchev.
2. A standard seven-hour working day with six hours on Saturday was introduced gradually under Khrushchev. The introduction of a forty-hour working week finally saw an end to 12 hour days in most fields.
3. The minimum wage was increased
4. Holiday pay introduced
5. Changing jobs without state permission was allowed.
   **These changes ahead the effect of improving the working conditions of employers. **

Question 22

Were there more change or continuity in urban working conditions, 1855-1964?

Answer 22

The primary continuity was that the interests of the employers were almost always seen as more important than the interests of the workers. The employers changed – from private individuals to the state – but the treatment of their employees continues. Furthermore, workers were routinely treated very harshly. Both the Stalinist Labour Decrees and the Tsarist New Work Discipline sought to instil military-style discipline in workers by giving harsh punishments and strict targets. The theme of long working hours continued. During Stalin’s time it was 10 hours, whilst during the Tsars time it was 11.

On the other hand, there was remarkable change in certain periods. Once again,** Khrushchev and Lenin probably oversaw the most positive.** Lenin’s change was much more limited in terms of the time-impact. The Worker’s Decrees had the effect of changing things for a matter of months. Yet, Khrushchev’s changes were much greater and long lasting. The Labour Laws of 1956 represented a significant improvement in the quality of working standards. They provided workers with more guaranteed rights than they were previously entitled to. As with housing, this reflects the Communist ideological mission having a practical effect.

Question 23

food/famine under the Tsars

Answer 23

Food shortages had always been a problem, hence the Zemstva was put in charge of famine relief, 1864, during Alexander II’s reign.
1. Famine of 1891 – approx. 350,000 died. Initially caused by poor weather but Vyshnegradsky’s policies of raising taxes on peasants and exporting grain made it worse. Alexander III reacted too late in banning exports of grain.
2. 1917 saw food shortages. Why? Peasants hoarded grain or fed livestock, army was prioritised, and the transport system failed to supply towns. The ‘revolution stated in the bread queue’. The Russian people hoped that the toppling of the Tsars and the rise of the Communists would bring about the promise of greater food. Lenin promised* ‘bread, peace and land’* in his famous slogan. Yet, this issue of food shortages largely continued.

Question 24

food and faminie under the communists

Answer 24

1.** Food crisis, 1918. Why? *Peasants unwilling to release grain. Kulaks blamed by the Communists for self-interested hoarding. Requisitioning introduced.
2. Famine of 1921. Why? Mainly caused by requisitioning and drought. *Approx. 5 million died. Stories of cannibalism and bodysnatching. Lenin blamed for famine, like Stalin and Alexander III. Lenin refused to accept aid from American Relief Administration.
3. Famine of 1932-4. Why? Collectivisation and poor harvests due to bad weather. The most disastrous famine. Harsh policies introduced to repress – death penalty for stealing grain, peasants who ate seed were shot, migration banned. Peasant reaction of slaughtering animals did not help. After 1935 harvests improved but production did not reach pre-1914 levels. By the late 1930s consumption of meat and fish had fallen to 30%.
4. Famine of 1947. Why? Collectivisation re-imposed after World War Two.
Food still had to be imported in 1960s….

Question 25

continuities in food shortages under both tsars and commi

Answer 25

Weather/climate
Gov’t policies – e.g. requisitioning, Collectivisation, export of grain
Monoculture
Mir

Question 26

rural working conditions under A2

Answer 26

Serfdom. Up until 1861 the Serfs were entirely under the control of the landowners. They were tied to the land they worked and could not legally move. They were required to give labour to the noble for, usually, 3 or 4 days per week. Serfs had no real legal rights and were often subject to harsh punishments. Emancipation of 1861 therefore ‘liberated’ peasants from some of these controls. Legally, they were now free but still required to pay redemption payments. After Emancipation, the Mir was empowered and villages gained some autonomy. The peasant council of elders dictated how the village was organised. They allocated land and tasks. To achieve surplus most peasants worked most days of the week. There was still some time to celebrate Holy Days.

Question 27

rural working conditions under A3

Answer 27

The state continued to view peasants as ‘indolent [lazy] and intoxicated’ and claimed these forces led to poor productivity. With continued poor harvests, low productivity, and famine, Alexander III intervened. Alexander introduced Land Captains to try and keep order in the countryside and maintain peasant discipline. Land Captains, 1889, involved, 2000 Nobles, being appointed by officials in regional districts. Their role was to discipline peasants for supposed wrong-doing. They could make local legal decisions and punish peasants for crimes. They were known for publicly flogging serfs. Land captain restored a sense of fear amongst the peasantry that had not existed since Emancipation.

Question 28

rural working conditions under N2

Answer 28

Stolypin’s reforms sought to remove the influence of the **Mir by giving peasants the right to withdraw and establish their own independent farms. Most peasants (90%), however, were unwilling to abide by the proposal and stayed within the mir. Those who left were viewed with great suspicion. Nicholas II was forced into a number of concessions following the Black Earth Revolts around 1903-1907. One concession included the* abolition of Redemption Payments, the other included the abolition of land captains***. Generally, he set about giving the peasant some further autonomies.

Question 29

rural working conditions under tsras as a whole

Answer 29

On the whole, across the Tsarist period, there continued to be a lack of investment. Peasant methods and tools remained largely unchanged. Peasants were too poor to have modern equipment. Most relied on old wooden ploughs, sickles and scythes. Three strip rotation (where one strip remained fallow each year) was the norm because fertilisers were not used on any large scale.

Question 30

rural working conditions under lenin

Answer 30

Under Lenin the brutal nature of requisitioning under War Communism (1918-21) meant that peasant lost control over the produce of their work. Grain was taken by the state and redistributed in towns and cities. The** NEP (1921-28) granted some respite to this temporarily. **

Question 31

rural working conditions under stalin

Answer 31

Collectivisation transformed the countryside by expanding Communist authority to villages. The traditional autonomy of the mir was lost, and now, how much was produced was dictated by central planning and target setting. Peasants work under the communists was far more regulated, and individuals who did not tow the party line were punished. In this way* one could argue that the life of the peasant was not that different in 1964 compared to 1855*. In 1855 they were required to work the land of the nobility, while in 1964 they were required to work the land of the state. In both cases peasants gained little from their hard work. Sheila Fitzpatrick** claims peasants viewed collectivisation as a ‘second serfdom’. **

Collective farms formed ‘brigades’ of peasant workers. These were made up of 50-200 peasants. Each was led by a brigadier. Each morning at 6am, on the sound of a re-purposed church bell, they would meet to receive instructions from their brigadier as to their day’s tasks. These instructions were top-down, and based on the whims of the Party and the Chairman of the farm (who was appointed by the party). Peasants had little autonomy.

Agricultural modernisation, however, did occur. Collectivisation introduced **machine tractor stations **(MTS). These serviced 94% of farms by 1940, helping to mechanise agriculture. MTS’ would rent out tractors to Collective Farms, sharing the equipment in theory helped to make production more efficient.

Question 32

rural working conditions under Khrushchev

Answer 32

expansion of the Collective farms in the 1950s and 60s represented a continuation in the policies of Stalin. **Peasant remained under the control of party with little autonomy. Mechanisation increased as more tractors were being produced. By the 1960s, the USSR was producing 440,000 tractors per year** (according to official data, probably exaggerated).

Question 33

overview of changes in the housing of rural workers under the Tsars

Answer 33

For most of the period housing remained the same. It consisted of a wooden hut [izba] heated by an oven. Often overcrowded, sometimes shared with animals, these were often cold, damp, and grubby by modern standards. **The regime played no role in building housing. Peasants had complete control. **

the main consequence was poor public health. Due to unsanitary conditions (e.g. sharing space with animals) and enclosed spaces (doors/windows kept hermetically sealed due to cold), disease was dreadful. Life expectancy for the average peasant in 1900 was just 35 years old. 1 in 4 peasant infants died before the age of one

Question 34

changes in the housing of rural workers under A2

Answer 34

Emancipation (1861) caused an increase in household partitions and splits. As peasants were now free to marry whom they liked, they could now choose to live more independently of their extended family. Over 40% of households divided between 1861-1884 and this led to the average size of the household unit declining from 9.5 to 6.8. Financially, these partitions tended to make households poorer, but it represented a consequence of greater peasant autonomy. The older, bigger, extended households tended to be more secure.

Question 35

changes in the housing of rural workers under A3

Answer 35

Peasant Land Bank (1883) gave richer peasant more opportunity to improve their land and provided some capital for richer kulaks. The result was a gradual improvement in the quality of kulak housing. Most peasants, of course, did not benefit from this.

Question 36

changes in the housing of rural workers under N2

Answer 36

**Stolypin’s reforms **(1907-8) led to some peasants moving away from the mir, in which the izbas were situated, and led to some setting up their own khutor farms outside of the mir. As previously there was a gradual improvement in the quality of kulak homes, but static for most peasants. The image to the right depicts the range of peasant housing from the late Tsarist period.

Question 37

changes in the housing of rural workers under lenin

Answer 37

Lenin famously stated: “Soviets plus electrification = Communism”. Little was achieved in his short time in power in relation to housing in the countryside, however. The Kommunalka was extended to the countryside where appropriate, but the** houses of ex-nobles were not always in suitable locations for the peasantry to use. **

Question 38

changes in the housing of rural workers under Stalin

Answer 38

The most significant shift in rural housing occurred under Collectivisation during the 1930s which introduced state intervention into peasant housing.** Housing blocks were constructed on collective farms** by the state. Notable changes occurred. Displaced Kulaks suffered eviction from their more modern housing, while effectively all peasants were forced into larger scale Collectives. Some positive change occurred, as shown by the falling infant mortality rates. Between 1935 and 1960 the infant mortality rate fell from over 200 to 36 per 1,000 births. Yet, if it was hoped that Collective farms would bring about the electrification of the countryside, the pace of change was slow. By 1941 just 1 in 24 farms had electricity. By 1950 this was 1 in 6. It was not until the 1960s when most had electricity. Even by the 1960s, the majority had no flowing water. Just 7% of rural roads were paved. It took until the 1970s for most to have flowing water and gas.

State intervention in households reached its peak in the 1937 Criminal Code. At this moment, icon corners were punishable for four years in prison under the 1937. Lenin/Stalin Corners were promoted in propaganda.

Question 39

when was the criminal code

Answer 39

1937

Question 40

what was the 1937 criminal code

Answer 40

, icon corners were punishable for four years in prison under the 1937. Lenin/Stalin Corners were promoted in propaganda

Question 41

changes in the housing of rural workers under Khrushchev

Answer 41

Khrushchev envisioned the creation of ‘agrocities’, large rural settlements with access to services like cities. He hoped to modernise housing, services, etc. His vision of agrocities was never implemented in practice. However, efforts were made in Khrushchev’s era to improve access to healthcare. In the countryside it has typically been difficult to access doctors. By 1940, the number of doctors was 155,000. By 1958, the figure had more than doubled (362,000 doctors). In 1967, there was a higher doctor to patients ratio (1:450) than the USA. Hospital bed numbers followed a similar trend. There had been just** 200,000 in 1912, but there were 1.5 million by 1958 and 2.5 million by 1969**. This last leap was particularly impressive, and can be explained by the Khrushchev government’s renewed focus on improving the living standards of Soviet citizens.

Question 42

primary schools under the Tsars

Answer 42

1. Pre-1864 education was limited. Just 7% of army recruits were literate.
2. Schools focused on basic skills – literacy and maths.
3. 1864 saw Alexander’s education reforms introduced. Schooling was put under the control of the Zemstva.
4. By **1877 zemstva control had been limited **and schooling was under the control of the Education Minister.
5. Church primary schools were common and encouraged by Alexander III
6. First Duma of 1906 promised the introduction of universal education by 1922. By 1914 51% attended – far below western levels. E.g. France had 100% in 1880s.

Question 43

primary schools under the communists

Answer 43

The Communists expanded state control over primary schooling by taking control of church schools in 1918.
**
Stalin achieved the Duma’s aim of making primary schooling compulsory in 1930. Between 1929 and 1930, the number of kids in primary schooling increased from* 8 million to 18 million. ***

The communists adopted a ‘war on illiteracy’ policy which saw adults attend evening classes. **90% literacy rates had been achieved by the time of the 1939 census **

Question 44

secondary schools under the Tsars

Answer 44

1. All of the Tsars** preferred the ‘gymnasia’ **[grammar schools], but modifications were made to curriculum and admissions.
2. A2 introduced a** ‘new code’ which split gymnasia into ‘traditional’ [teaching Russian plus the classics] and ‘real’ [teaching modern languages, sciences and maths]**. The ‘real’ gymnasia were deemed to encourage revolutionary thought. Attendance doubled, 1855-1865, particularly benefiting the m/c
3. Yet, Tolstoy [A2 Ed Minister] **changed university entrance exams which effectively banned m/c from progressing to university **
4. Furthermore, A3 banned ‘lower classes’ from secondary schooling

Question 45

secondary schools under the communists

Answer 45

1. Lenin banned gymnasia and replaced them with polytechnics, focusing on vocational education.
2. 1930s saw a return to mixed polytechnic and gymnasia education
3. The polytechnics played a role in providing workers for the Five-Year Plans. Numbers attending increased from 2.5 million in 1931 to 6.9 million in 1932
4. Khrushchev reverted to secondary schooling based on the polytechnic model. He scrapped school fees [introduced in 1939]

Question 46

changes between tsars and commi regarding primary schools

Answer 46

1. The Tsars achieved only limited progress with regards to expanding primary school provision. Just 51% were in primary schools by 1914 when most other Western countries had done so in the 1880s. on the other hand, the** Communists rapidly made progress on attendance [100% in 1930] and literacy [90% by 1939].**
2. Furthermore, control over schooling was more completely under state control in the Communist period. Under the Tsarist period, church schools were common.

Question 47

changes between tsars and commi regarding secondary schools

Answer 47

The Tsars preferred restricting secondary education to the nobility in the form of traditional gymnasia. A3 even banned lower classes from schools.
On the other hand, the communists tended to prefer vocational, such as to support the Five-Year Plans and increased provisions dramatically.

Question 48

university under the tsars

Answer 48

1.** Tsars were concerned by university** education since it was seen as a breeding ground for opposition. In 1861, the first attempt to assassinate A2 was carried out by a student. In response the regime accused many students of sedition.

2. A statute of 1863 granted universities large degree of autonomy over their curriculum, but the Education Minister still had the final say over what was to be taught.
3. Under Alexander III university autonomy was further restricted as university councils were no longer elected but appointed by the regime.
4. Nine institutions providing for **16,500 students in 1900 **
5. Concerns about student radicals continued into Nicholas’ reign with **Stolypin banning non-academic meetings at universities. **

Question 49

university under the communists

Answer 49

Universities were** completely under state control** in the Communist era. Whilst education was free, the number of available slots were determined by the Five-Year Plans. Entrance examinations were highly competitive due to the limited number of courses.** Courses tended to be vocational**. For instance, 50% of students in the Stalinist period were students of engineering. Other popular courses involved medicine, agriculture, and science. Courses did not encourage critical thought, but focused on technical skills. The humanities were highly ideological with a heavy focus on learning Marxist principles. By 1960 there were around 600,000 students.

Question 50

changes between tsars and commi regarding universities

Answer 50

1. Bolsheviks focused on vocational education while education was* broader under the Tsars.* At Moscow University, for instance, there were four departments – law, medicine, physics and maths, history and philology
2. The number of students increased in the Bolshevik era. **Students in 1900 was 16,500; increasing to 600,000 by 1960. **
3. Whilst state control over what was taught continued, the Bolsheviks added Marxist ideology to courses

Question 51

religious overview under tsars

Answer 51

Under all of the Tsars, the Orthodox faith was hugely important. Orthodoxy was influential over the everyday life of citizens, it served as the ideological basis of the regime as a core component of the Three Pillars of Tsarism, and was a means by which the government controlled the population.** Religious freedom was limited. **

Question 52

cultural influence under tsars and religion

Answer 52

In the 1897 census, the first of its kind, 70% of the population considered themselves ‘Orthodox’. Those who were non-Orthodox were typically in non-Russian parts of the empire. For instance, the Baltic states were Protestant, whilst the Kazakhs were Muslims. For most Russians, the Orthodox Church had enormous cultural influence. For instance:
* Icon Corners. Most Russian homes had ‘icon corners’ - a small worship space prepared in the homes. Icon corners were typically full of wood carvings of saints other significant religious figures. These were places where Russians would pray and were treated with great veneration.
* Orthodox Churches. Orthodox Churches were the centre of Russian communities whether in villages or in cities. There were** over 80,000 Orthodox churches in Russia in 1914. About 85% of peasants attended church services regularly in 1850, and by 1900 the proportion was even higher (at 89%**). Orthodox churches helped to shape everyday life by providing weekly services and providing social services. Churches were often involved in providing charity to the poor.
* Holy Days. The church calendar governed the calendar of most Russian villages. Annual Orthodox processions occurred on important religious days each year – such as Easter Sunday

Question 53

how many churches in russia in 1914

Answer 53

over 80,000 Orthodox churches in Russia in 1914

Question 54

church attendence in 1850 and 1900

Answer 54

85% of peasants attended church services regularly in 1850, and by 1900 the proportion was at 89%

Question 55

social control / political influence

tsars and religion

Answer 55

The Orthodox church and the Russian state were inherently interconnected. The head of the Orthodox Church – the Procurator – was directly appointed by the Tsar and sat in the cabinet. Through 1880 to 1905, under all three Tsars, Konstantin Pobedonostsev served this role. The Orthodox Church under all Tsars sought to control the beliefs and attitudes of the Russian people. For instance:
* Control of school education. Churches controlled primary school education under Alexander III. Education focused on teaching a strict moral code and obedience to authority figures.
* Three Pillars. Tsar as defender of the faith; church as defender of the Tsar. To spread the message of divine will – the Tsar was anointed by God and so their authority could not be challenged. Russia had been blessed by God with the Tsarist system and so the Russian people must obey their Tsar.

Question 56

overview of communists and religion

Answer 56

The Communists viewed religion in a different way. Marx described it as the ‘opium of the masses’, recognising its ability to control the thoughts and actions of people. This perspective was shared by all communists. They believed the only role of religion was to take people’s minds off worrying about economic and social problems and was therefore a way in which Capitalists controlled the people. All the Communist leaders were atheists who sought to reduce the role of religion in society, pursue anti-religious campaigns and reduce the power of the church

Question 57

measures installed by lenin

religion

Answer 57

1. • Decree on the Separation of Church and state, 1918. This decree set about the process of secularisation – removing religious influences from the state. For the first time, Russia was a secular state. Quite the contrast from the Three Pillars.
2. • At least 1,200 priests executed during Red Terror, 1918-21. Church officials were deemed to be class enemies during the Civil War. Their ‘bourgeois’ attitudes were deemed to be threats to the regime.
3. • Nationalisation of church lands and the confiscation of church property.
4. • From **1921 teaching of religion in schools was forbidden **

Question 58

when was the Decree on the Separation of Church and state

Answer 58

1918

Question 59

what was the Decree on the Separation of Church and state

Answer 59

about the process of secularisation – removing religious influences from the state. For the first time, Russia was a secular state. Quite the contrast from the Three Pillars.

Question 60

measures under stalin

RELIGION

Answer 60

• The **1936 Constitution criminalised religious propaganda. **
• Stalin systematically destroyed churches: between 1927-1941, the number of churches in Russia fell from around 30,000 to 500. [e.g. Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]
• The number of priests in Russia reduced from **60,000 in 1925 to under 6,000 by 1941. **
• Orthodox priests were killed in the ‘Great Terror of 1937
• Christian festivals (Christmas, Easter, etc) were replaced by New Year’s Day and May Day as days of public celebrations

Question 61

when did stalin change his policy regarding religion

Answer 61

WW2

Question 62

Chnage in stalin’s religious policy

WW2

Answer 62

abrupt U-turn on the Soviet policy towards religion. Stalin recognised that during wartime ‘the opium of the people’ could be quite useful to improve morale and motivate the population. In a break from pre-war policies cooled the state’s relationship with the church. Stalin stopped persecution, re-opened churches, freed priests and religion once more was tolerated. There was a sense that ‘the enemy of my enemy is my friend’ about the reversals. Priests were called to speak to soldiers and church ceremonies – particularly funerals - were frequently full in wartime. This marked a significant change from the systematic destruction of churches in the 1930s. But it also showed a continuity in beliefs. Although the state destroyed physical aspects of the church in the 1930s, belief in religion remained and the state knew this. After the war Stalin continued to be relatively tolerant towards the church. Churches continued to open (and reported large congregations) and priests were left alone. By 1959 there were 22,000 churches.

Question 63

when did khrushchev launch his anti-religious campagin

Answer 63

1959-1964

Question 64

measures implemented under khrushchev

religion

Answer 64

• mass closures of churches (reducing the number from 22,000 in 1959 to 7,873 by 1965)
• Atheism introduced into school curriculum
• Parents banned from teaching their children religion

Question 65

conclusuon on religion

overall

Answer 65

Across the period, religion remained an issue that the state wanted to control. Both regimes sought to control people’s beliefs and therefore limited their freedoms

However, the Tsars and the Communists took radically different approach to religion. The Tsars viewed the church as a means to legitimise their regime; whilst communists viewed it as a threat and tried to eradicate it. Both, in the end, failed!

Question 66

social structure under the Tsars

Answer 66

For most of the period up to 1917, Russian society remained largely the same. Society was characterised by unequal social hierarchies. The 1897 census (the first of its kind) gives an insight into this society:
The nobility made up about 2% of the population. They inherited their wealth and titles. They owned land. They often worked as bureaucrats to the state.
The middle classes made up a small group, no more than 10%. They were not wealthy like those in the West (because of the lack of businesses/industries). Instead they were made up of Christian priests, teachers, doctors, and small shop owners.
The lower classes, predominantly peasants, made up around 80% of the population. These included peasants in the countryside and the growing number of workers living in towns and cities. Their conditions were poor.
NB. the remaining 8% were hard to define – e.g. Cossacks.

Question 67

what were the two declassing events under the communists

social structure

Answer 67

1. following the october revolution 1917-21
2. dekulakisation in 1929 -mid 1930’s

Question 68

following the october revolution 1917-21

declassing in social structure

Answer 68

• Nobles and middle classes had their wealth, land, and property expropriated. The 1917 Decree on the Abolition of Estates and Civil Ranks ended all titles (leading the term ‘Comrade’ to replace it as the normal means of greeting an equal). The Kommunalka policy involved the forced take over of the old elites houses. The Decree on Land nationalised all land in Russia. War Communism nationalised all industries.
  All of this was without compensation.

Result: most of these groups sided with the Whites during the civil war. By the 1920s approx.** 2 million left Russia in this period. The people who left Russia were mostly from the professional classes, leading to Russia* suffering something of a brain drain of talented people. ***

Question 69

De-Kulakisation in 1929- mid 1930s

declassing in social structure

Answer 69

Stalin announced his intention of** “liquidation of the kulaks as a class”** on 27 December 1929. Kulaks were divided into three categories:
1. Counter-revolutionaries who were to be shot (approximately 25,000) or sent to gulag (approximately 390,000)
2. Active opponents of collectivisation who were to be deported to other regions of the Soviet Union. Many were moved to Siberia (approximately 1.8 million)
3. Those who were expelled from their farms and settled in collective farms
Over a 5-year period, the** Kulaks were brutally eliminated and reduced down into the ordinary peasantry** (or killed).
Therefore, those classes who had status or wealth in Tsarist times suffered greatly under the communists.

Question 70

unequal social hierachy still under the communists

Answer 70

Aparatchiks had a privileged position in the Soviet system. These were party members who had special access to higher-paying managerial and bureaucratic jobs. But on top of this they also had social privileges. Unlike the rest of society, they were able to have access to:
Higher pay, Important jobs, Independent household/flats (not Kommunlaka), Luxury items – including foreign imports, cars, etc.
Why did this occur? Lenin’s ideology was that the workers needed to be led by a ‘vanguard party’. The consequence of this was the development of a new elite of privileged loyal party officials. A large amount of corruption also contributed. Consider Michels’ ‘iron law of oligarchy’ and Trotsky’s comment about Stalinist Russia – ‘a dictatorship of the bureaucracy’

Question 71

women under A2

Answer 71

Education reforms saw some girls schools introduced at primary and secondary level for the first time. Few schools were built, and they were limited on class, but progress was made.
On the other hand, the 1863 University Statute banned women from university courses. The established universities were thus exclusively male spaces. Yet, even here, progress was made. Two separate higher education institutions developed courses to educate women in both St. Petersburg and Moscow. In St. Petersburg the Bestuzhev Courses taught women courses; whilst in Moscow Guerrier Courses.

Question 72

women under A3

Answer 72

there was a retreat. Alexander oversaw the banning of female higher education institutions in 1888. Both the Bestuzhev and Guerrier Courses were shut down. This counter-reform was driven by a what Alexander III perceived as the over-reforms of Alexander II. Women were increasingly involved in revolutionary movements during the 1870s. Two high profile examples were Vera Figner and Vera Zasulich.

Question 73

Zasulich vs Trepov, 1878
[and then briefly on Figner]

women under A3

Answer 73

Zasulich had shot and wounded the governor of St. Petersburg, Trepov, after he had mistreated prisoners and was brought to trail in 1878. Zasulich had admitted shooting him, but claimed she was politically justified in doing so because he had flogged prisoners who refused to remove their hat in his presence. She claimed she had taken the action to protect her countrymen who were being mistreated. Testimony of prisoners who had been flogged, along with the physical evidence of their treatment was shown to the jury. The jury were convinced by her argument and reached the verdict of ‘not guilty’.

Vera Figner on the other hand become a leading member of the People’s Will in 1879 and was involved in plotting the assassination of Alexander II. She was imprisoned in solitary confinement.

Question 74

women under N2

Answer 74

women there was an expansion of education at both primary and secondary level, benefiting women. Furthermore, one of the minor concessions given in** 1905 was to allow women into higher education once again by abolishing the 1863 University Statute**. By 1909 there were 640 women in these courses. Not many, but some minor progress was being made.

Question 75

overview on women under the Tsars

Answer 75

women’s rights and opportunities were extremely limited. Women’s experiences, of course, depended on their class. If they were born into a richer family, they may have been more fortunate. They may have had the opportunity to get some level of education and may have had an opportunity to gain an administrative/clerical related job. If, however, they were born into an average peasant family their life opportunities would have been far more restricted. A case in point of Sofya Kovalevskaya. A talented mathematician who went to school as a result on Alexander II’s reforms. At the age of 16, realising she could not study further in Russia, she travelled abroad and graduated. She eventually became the first ever European female professor in Sweden. Russia’s restrictive laws were thus causing them to lose talented people.

Question 76

background on women under communists

Answer 76

The Bolsheviks attempted in many ways to ‘liberate’ women from the constraints of this repressive culture. Ideologically, the communists were more attuned to perceived inequalities in relation to class, and thus were more sympathetic to inequality on the grounds of gender. As soon as Lenin took power,** Soviet propaganda promoted the notion that women were to be equals to men.** Imagery depicted women outside their traditional sphere, promoting a sense of liberation.

Question 77

changes under lenin regrading women [good]

Answer 77

1. Personal/political freedoms: Decree against Sex Discrimination, Nov 1917  equalised women’s legal status to men’s. This meant that women were now able to inherit, vote, get involved in education and work in the same capacity as men.
2. As part of the broader attempts to secularise Russia and remove religious influence, remarkable change occurred in the family sphere. Liberal divorce laws were introduced. By the 1920s divorces occurred at 25% greater than the rates in Britain. In 1920 abortion was legalised. Russia was the first country in the world to take this step.

Question 78

evidence against lenin regarding women

Answer 78

1. Just 14% of undergraduates were women in 1928.
2. Women suffered from a ‘*dual burden’ *of being expected both by the state to do work outside of the home, and also to attend to household needs such as cleaning and childcare.
3. By 1929 the percentage of women in industrial work was the same as it had been in 1913

Question 79

changes under stalin regrading women [good]

Answer 79

• The USSR Constitution stated of 1936 “Women in the USSR are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres of economic, state, cultural, social, and political life.” (Article 122)
• Industrialisation created opportunities for women in towns and cities.** Female industrial workers grew from 3 million in 1928 to 13 million in 1940**
• Expansion of education helped to allow women to be* 58% of all undergraduate degrees in 1940*
• Women played a hugely important role in the Red Army during World War Two. Around 800,000 women served and some become Soviet Heroes. Lyudmila Pavlichenko was a soviet sniper believed to have killed 309 Germans before she was severely wounded in June 1942.

Question 80

changes under stalin regrading women [bad]

Answer 80

in 1936 a new Family Code was introduced. This had a number of changes which impacted women’s lives:
- Large fees were introduced to** deter divorces.**
- abortion made illegal *except to protect the mother’s life. *
- Contraception was banned where it was not medically required.
- Women were encouraged to have children:
Financial incentives were given to large families. Tax exemptions occurred for those who had six or more children.
Women could get 16 weeks of maternity leave

Question 81

women under Khrushchev

Answer 81

Khrushchev The trends of the previous rulers continued much the same. In 1956, women constituted 45 percent of the Soviet labour force and were essential workers in education, healthcare, trade, public services, and light industry. The highlight of progress was Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6 on* 16 June 1963*. This would have been unthinkable under the Tsars!

Khrushchev** reversed some of the more restrictive Stalinist policies, such as the 1936 Family Code. Contraception & abortion were legalised again**; while more liberal divorce laws were brought into action.

Yet, one of the great failures of Communist policy was that there remained a glass ceiling for women in the Soviet Union. The Communists seemed particularly unwilling to incorporate women into leading positions within the state. Some women did become ministers and deputy ministers within the party, but very few women were able to maintain a long-lasting and powerful influence over the Communist Party. The USSR, of course, never had a female leader and nor was one ever a likely possibility.