central government: The nature of government

Question 1

what is central gov

Answer 1

Central Government refers to the institutions with the power in a state to govern. Central governments decide state-wide domestic and foreign policies.

Question 2

chronological order of central gov [revolutions+govs]

Answer 2

1905- revolution+ oct manifesto
1906- fundamental laws
1906-17 - DUMA
1917 - duma/dual power with soviets
1917- oct revolution
1918- constituion of the RSFSR
1922- USSR
1936- stain constitution

Question 3

what rype of gov did the tsars have

Answer 3

a top down one

Question 5

structure of gov under A2 and A3

Answer 5

1. TSAR= autocrat –
* all organs of gov were both appointed+accountable to Tsar
* the tsar had complete control over policy
* ministers could only advise tsar
UNDER THE TSAR
1. council of ministers
* drafted laws prior to royal assent
**2. imperial council of state **
* gave policy advice to tsar
3. committee of ministers
* 13 ministers, purely administrative, dont formulate policy
4. the senate
* supreme court
* promoted Ukaz-Tsarist decrees

Question 6

probs faced by N2 in 1905

Answer 6

* Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5. Russia expect quick and easy victory, Japanese surprise Russia with their military organisation and naval strength.
* Jan 1905 – Bloody Sunday Father Gapon organises w/c demonstration calling for minor economic reform, brutally repressed by Tsarist soldiers. Tsarist response caused horror amongst population and caused further strikes.
Rural discontent – stretching back to 1861, the peasants had been unhappy with their condition. 1905 sees peasants seizing land from nobles.
* National minorities revolt – e.g. the Poles in Warsaw, the Finns in Helsinki.
* Russia’s m/c express discontent – they’d been excluded from political life they believed they should have a role in.

Tsarist state was under threat - could not simply use force to repress

Question 7

what did N2 introduce following the 1905 revolt

Answer 7

1. oct manifesto 1905
2. fundamental laws 1906

Question 8

what was the oct manifesto

Answer 8

The October Manifesto was primarily an attempt to calm revolutionary activity by promising a series of reforms. The Manifesto itself did not introduce the following reforms, but promised they would be enacted in due course:
- Basic Civil Liberties – freedom of speech, association, conscience, assembly.
- The creation of a Duma [Parliament] with powers to enact laws
- Universal male suffrage
- Political parties legalised

Question 9

when was the oct manifesto [and who]

Answer 9

1905 [N2]

Question 10

what were the fundamental laws

Answer 10

The Fundamental Laws were the practical changes brought about to Russia’s constitution following the promises in the October Manifesto. The Laws brought about the only real change to the Russian political system during the Tsarist period and constitute the nature of government between 1906-1917.

Question 11

when was the fundamental laws

Answer 11

1906

Question 12

how did the fundamental laws chnage the gov

Answer 12

UNDER TSAR
1. council of ministers
* law-making body, like a parliamentary cabient
* proposed laws for DUMA to debate
* appointed by tsar
**2. the state council **
* upper chamber, like house of lords
* checks laws before passing to tsar
* mix of tsar appointees / elected
3. DUMA
* lower chamber, like house of commons
* power to block laws
* elected
4. the senate
* supreme court

Question 13

impact of fundamental laws

Answer 13

On the surface, this appeared to represent a significant change. New aspects of the political system** included genuine elections, legitimate opposition within a Parliamentary setting **[the Duma], some sharing of legislative powers to the Duma. Significantly, for the first time, the Tsar had recognised another legal body with political power.

However,* in reality,* the Fundamental Laws represented a continuation of the autocracy. The Tsar retained ultimate control over the passing of laws through his royal assent, and the introduction of laws through the appointment of ministers. Furthermore, Article 87 of the Fundamental Laws stated that the Tsar had the power to rule by decree without the Duma’s approval, should the situation demand it. So, effectively, the Tsar could continue to rule without any collaboration with the new Duma.

Question 14

continuities of Tsar gov before/after 1905

Answer 14

1. Tsar continued to rule autocratically in a top-down manner. For instance:
   * Committee of Ministers [pre 1905] appointed by the Tsar; Council of Ministers [post 1905] appointed by the Tsar
   * The Tsar had the final say over policy decisions prior to 1905, and could use article 87 of the Fundamental Laws to rule by decree post 1905. Furthermore, post 1905 the Tsar could veto all suggestions by the Duma.
   * All other organs of government remained effectively advisory – they had no powers to challenge the Tsar. For instance, pre-1905 the Committee of Ministers could not formulate policies; similarly after 1905 the Council needed the Tsars approval.
   * Post 1905 the Tsar could dissolve the Duma at his choice.
2. The Senate’s role remained the same. The Tsar could announce Ukaz [decrees/manifestos] which had the force of a law without the approval of any other institution.

Question 15

changes of Tsar gov before/after 1905

Answer 15

1. The existence of the Duma [Parliament] suggested a more democratic system.
   * Political parties legalised
   * Duma could block the passing of laws when sitting
   * People gained representatives through election
2. The position of Prime minister was created – appointed by the Tsar, but had to provide material for the Duma to debate.

Question 16

overview of the similarities and differences in Tsarist government before/after 1905

Answer 16

Overall, in practice, the Tsarist government before and after 1905 **remained the same. **The Tsars maintained a top-down system of autocratic rule. Although the reforms introduced in 1905 and 1906 introduced some new features, such as elections, a national Duma, and the post of Prime Minister, these were superficial changes designed to reduce the opposition the regime experienced in 1905 in order to protect the Autocracy, not to destroy it. Ultimately the Tsar remained in control of ukaz decrees, appointed ministers, and could veto all decisions made by the Duma.

Question 17

when was the first duma

Answer 17

april - june 1906

Question 18

composition of the first DUMA

Answer 18

Kadets – 182
Trudoviks – 107
National Parties-60
Rightists – 8
Progressists – 17
Octobrists – 17
Mensheviks – 18

Question 19

political events during the first duma

Answer 19

Air of hostility vs Tsar. Parties and electors felt let down by the Fundamental laws
Kadet led criticism and demanded:
- Power of Duma to be increased
- Elections to be universal & secret
- Guarantees of freedom of speech & assembly
- Land reform

Question 20

dismissal of the first duma

Answer 20

Tsar shocked by the Duma’s lack of respect & hostility.
Tsar dissolved the Duma
Vyborg Manifesto – 200 Kadet deputies went to Finland and urged Russians not to pay taxes or join the army.

Tsar used Article 87 to close down Kadet offices and barred them from re-election (tore the kadet party apart)

Question 21

when was the second duma

Answer 21

feb-june 1907

Question 22

composition of 2nd duma

Answer 22

Kadets – 91
Trudoviks – 104
National Parties-93
Rightists – 10
Progressists – 28
Octobrists – 42
Mensheviks – 47
SRs - 37

Question 23

political events during 2nd duma

Answer 23

“The Duma of National anger” – more radical than the First. The left interrupted government ministers when they spoke. Split by huge Left-Right disagreements. Okhrana discovered an SD plot to murder the Tsar

Question 24

dismissal of 2nd duma

Answer 24

Dissolved.

SDs arrested. Okhrana infiltrated radical left-wing parties

Changes to the electoral system by Stolypin.
Peasants & workers were virtually excluded – only one-sixth of men could vote.

Question 25

what happened between the 2nd and 3rd duma

Answer 25

Constitutional change – Stolypin’s Coup – restricted franchise, effectively excluding peasants / workers from voting. Helped to create a pro-Tsarist government

Question 27

when waa the 3rd duma

Answer 27

nov 1907-june 1912

Question 28

composition of 3rd duma

Answer 28

Right-wing majority, more pro-Tsar

Question 29

political events of 3rd duma

Answer 29

Stolypin worked effectively with the Duma. There was cooperation over land reform / education law of 1908 introducing universal education, a national insurance scheme and the restoration of land captains.

Yet, there were still tensions between Tsar and Duma:
- Octobrist criticised state finances
- In 1910 Stolypin persuaded the Tsar to Use article 87 to suspend the Duma and introduce the Zemstva into western Russia.

Question 30

dismissal of 3rd duma

Answer 30

This was the first (and last) Duma to survive a full five-year term without being dissolved.

Question 31

when was the 4th duma

Answer 31

nov 1912 - 1917

Question 32

composition of 4th duma

Answer 32

Dominated by right:
Rightists – 154
Octobrist – 95
Kadets – 53
Progressists – 41
National Party – 22
Bolsheviks – 15
Trudoviks – 10

Question 33

political events during 4th duma

Answer 33

Continued support & funding for the education law of 1908.
Reform of the Orthodox Church and reduction of state control (although not enacted)
Talks to reduce the huge consumption of vodka (but no action was taken because the govt got so much revenue from this).

Duma criticised gov’t handling of Lena Goldfield Strike

Question 34

changes during 1905-1917 in the nature of russian gov

Answer 34

• The introduction of political parties created room for formal opposition to the Tsars
• The introduction of the Duma and elections created a degree of democracy, albeit a limited one
• The Fundamental Laws created a Duma with the power to veto laws, the first time an institution aside from the Tsar possessed such power.

Question 34

dismissal of 4th duma

Answer 34

Interrupted by WW1 in 1914

Met in 1915, Progressive Bloc formed, Tsar refused to work with it.

Question 35

continuities during 1905-1917 in the nature of russian gov

Answer 35

• The Tsar had the power to appoint ministers
• The Tsar had the final say over laws
• The Tsar’s use of article 87, for instance in 1910, showed the Tsar could easily bypass the Duma should he choose to.

Question 36

overview of how commi’s operated central gov

Answer 36

In theory, unlike Tsarist government, the basis of Communist government stemmed not from the top-down [i.e. from God], but from the bottom-up [i.e. from the workers]. The origin of Bolshevik government stemmed from organisations called ‘Soviets’, councils made of workers and left-wing political parties during the late Tsarist period. The nature of the Soviets pre and post revolution, however, were very different things. Prior to the October revolution, Soviets had been quite diverse institutions with many different parties within them.

During 1917, in opposition to the Provisional government, Lenin developed the slogan ‘all power to the Soviets’. The cry was a meaningful one in that they were calling for the end of power-sharing ‘Dual Power’ with the Duma and the establishment of worker control. This cry was particularly popular because many believed if the Soviets had complete power they would push for an end of war – something popular amongst the soldiers and workers, but not popular in the Duma.

‘All power to the Soviet’ would have represented a significant change in the nature of Russian central government, introducing a more democratic form of government than ever seen in Russia before.

Question 37

what did commi implemnet to remove democratic elements of the soviets

Answer 37

• • In October 1917 the Bolsheviks announced to the Congress of Soviets that they had seized power from the Provisional Government. Moderate socialists, Mensheviks and SRs angrily stormed out of the Soviet, leaving Trotsky to famously state: “Go where you belong from now on – into the dustbin of history!”. This Left a majority of Bolsheviks in the Congress to legitimise their authority
• • The Congress of Soviets established Sovnarkom [Council of People’s Commissars] – effectively the new government. Sovnarkom acted as the government. Lenin resisted calls for a coalition because it would lead him to compromise, instead choosing to fill government with Bolsheviks. He became Chairman [Prime minister], Trotsky gained Foreign affairs, Stalin was Commissar of the Nationalities.
• • Following the October Revolution, the Bolshevik party dominated all structures of the Soviet. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union [or CPSU, what the Bolsheviks became in 1918] was based on the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic Centralism was a Leninist idea, established in 1903 when the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks split. It originated as the model of the party in opposition to the Tsars/Provisional Government, but became the model of rule during the entire Soviet era. Democratic Centralism was the notion that democracy did play a role in the party when voting for key posts/positions. However, once a decision had been made by the leadership of the party, the ‘Centralism’ components entailed that a decision on policy was binding to all members and no one could question/dispute decisions. This was a way of ensuring the ‘political vanguard’ of professional revolutionaries held supreme power over party policy. In 1921, at a time when there was a nationwide crisis and the potential of a Bolshevik split, Lenin decreed a Ban on Factions stating that the internal factions within the Bolshevik Party could no longer operate. The intention of this policy was to ensure that party unity was maintained through the NEP era.

Question 38

commission of the soviet gov

Answer 38

20 members, each with a responsibility over a specific aspect of government [e.g. Commissar for Foreign Affairs], elected by central executive committee, Lenin chairman [up to 1924], key decision-makers, ruled by decree, decided policy met daily

Question 39

central executive committee in soviet gov

Answer 39

elected by Congress, administration role [not a decision-making committee]. It led the Congress when the Congress was not sitting.

After 1924 it was split into Union Soviet (for all of the Republics), and Soviet of Nationalities (for National Minorities within the Republics)

Question 40

all russian congress of soviets in soviet gov

Answer 40

1000-2000 members, elected by Provincial Soviets, met once per year. Acted as the equivalent of a parliament and were the supreme law-making body.

In reality, they confirmed decisions made by Sovnarkom above and acted as a ‘rubber stamp’

Question 41

Provincial and City Soviets in soviet gov

Answer 41

elected by local soviets.
Responsible for regional or city administration – e.g. Leningrad/Moscow. Mainly administrative, they carried out policies made above.

Question 42

local and district soviets in soviet gov

Answer 42

Elected local representatives. By 1920s members had to be CPSU members.

Question 43

electorate in soviet govs

Answer 43

‘Toiling masses’ were given the vote. The ‘exploitative classes’ were banned from voting. Workers votes were weighted and worth five times more than peasants.

Question 44

what was the politburo in commi party

Answer 44

5-9 members, elected by Central Committee, decision makers, met daily and became increasingly important from 1919 onwards.

Question 45

central committee in commi party

Answer 45

40 members, elected by Congress, ran party affairs

As the Party Congress had hundreds of delegates, the Central Committee allowed faster decision making throughout the year.

Question 46

party congress in commi party

Answer 46

elected by Provincial / City parties. Met annually – usually once per year

Hundreds of delegates voted on all main party policies. Until 1921 there were many different sub-groups, but the Ban on Factions removed them

Question 47

city/provincial parties in commi party

Answer 47

party secretaries at this level often had significant influence. For instance, Kamenev / Zinoviev derived support from their control of Moscow / Leningrad. Party secretaries appointed by Politburo

Question 48

town/district in commi party

Answer 48

1 members elected from each cell

Question 49

‘cell’ in the commi party

Answer 49

individual workplaces. People joined for advantages, such as the opportunity to gain jobs.

Question 50

the role of the CPSU in the soviet union

simple

Answer 50

• The main role of the party was to vet reliable administrators.
• To vet party members, in April 1922 the position of General Secretary was created and given to Stalin.
• Through the 1920s and the 1930s the party’s role in the bureaucracy increased

Question 51

• The main role of the party was to vet reliable administrators.

role in CPSU in soviet union

Answer 51

Gaining a post in the CPSU was a privilege, not a right, and that privilege could be withdrawn. Members had to prove their ideological convictions, adherence to the Ban on Factions + the principle of Democratic Centralism, and their sound character. Those not committed had their membership withdrawn. Indeed, in 1922 there was a purge of a group known as the ‘raddishes’ [for being red on the outside and white in the middle] who joined the party for merely personal gain. In 1921-22 a third of members were removed because of this.

Question 52

To vet party members, in April 1922 the position of General Secretary was created and given to Stalin.

role in CPSU in soviet union

Answer 52

The position was initially a purely administrative one (not a political one). The purpose of the role was to ensure the party was organised effectively and that discipline was ensured.
The role allowed Stalin to:
 Keep files on members
 Appoint bureaucrats
 Demote bureaucrats over disciplinary issues
 Remove party members if they broke party rules [see above]
This post allowed Stalin to promote his allies, creating a nepotistic bureaucracy

Question 53

Through the 1920s and the 1930s the party’s role in the bureaucracy increased:

role in CPSU in soviet union

Answer 53

o The Nomenklatura system was established. This was a list of key jobs in the government and party of which only the Central Committee could appoint. This** gave the party elites, most notably Stalin, the power the appoint loyalists** and ensured that the CPSU adhered to his own
o By the 1930s, 10% of party members were aparatchiks [full-time paid party organisers], and a further 30% of members were administrators.

Question 54

central gov under stalin [changes]

Answer 54

constitution did not fundamentally change the structure of central government in the USSR, but built on the platform of the 1918 and 1922 constitution. The main innovation of the Stalin Constitution was the extension of powers to the Soviet Socialist Republics [SSR]. The individual SSRs were given some autonomy over their own internal affairs. In particular they were given the right to control their own education system and, in theory, the right to withdraw from the Union of Soviet Social Republics, as setup in 1924.
Furthermore, Stalin adapted the electoral system. The 1918 constitution had only given the ‘toiling masses’ [peasants and workers] the power to vote. B**y 1936, Stalin argues that the class system had been abolished and that, as a result, everybody should be able to vote. **
The final change was a new legislative structure, providing the SSRs more of a say over laws that were passed in the Soviet Union.

Question 55

central gov under stalin [continuities]

Answer 55

two important continuities:
1. the principle of** democratic centralism** and a one-party state remained. Stalin now justified the one-party state by noting that there was no need for a multi-party system because the old competing classes, which the parties represent, had been dismantled. Article 126 of the Stalin Constitution stated the CPSU would remain the ‘nucleus of all public and state institutions’.

2. Stalin maintained democratic centralism by ensuring that dissent from the party-line was never tolerated. Although in theory the SSRs now had some autonomy, in practice they could do very little with that autonomy. Straying from the Marxist-Leninist education, for instance, was unacceptable. Furthermore, in 1951 the Georgian SSR attempted to formally leave the USSR, a right given by the constitution. However, Stalin prevented this by purge the Georgian CP and executing its leading members.

Question 56

continuities in central gov between tsars and commi

Answer 56

1. Both systems had unconstrained power and authority residing in a centralised location. Both were authoritarian regimes. E.g. both Lenin [through Sovnarkom] and the Tsars [e.g. article 87 of the Fundamental Laws] could rule by decree
2. Both gave an **illusion of democracy **[Tsar = Dumas, Soviets = democratic centralism], but in reality power was centralised
3. Reforms made little real impact in changing the system – all the Soviet constitutions included the basic principle of democratic centralism and one-party rule; all Tsarist reforms adhered to Autocracy.

they were all centralised, hierarchical and bureaucratic

Question 57

changes in central gov between tsars and commi

Answer 57

1. Soviet central government **revolved around the power of the Communist party / Tsarist was centralised to one individual through Autocracy **
2. Soviet central government claimed authority through Soviets from the bottom-up, whilst the Tsars claimed authority from the top-down. The soviet system of central government included a greater aspect of democracy through democratic centralism
3. Tsarist Regime was reactive in terms of central government reform: they only introduced changes when central government was under threat in 1905. The communist reforms tended to extend the principles of USSR to other regions. E.g. the RSFSR just focused on Russia, the Stalin constitution extended right to national minorities