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Social- og personlighedspsykologi > Vigtige artikler > Flashcards

Vigtige artikler Flashcards

1
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

What is the central purpose of the article?

A

Trying to get an understanding of WHY humans univesally display and recognize distinct emotions

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2
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

Darwin (1872) proposed that emotion expressions evolved to serve 2 classes of function, which?

A
  1. Preparing the organism to respond adaptively to environmentally recurrent stimuli
  2. communicating critical social information
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3
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

what does the “two-stage-model” of emotion-expression evolution say?

A

Internal physiological regulation was likely the adaptive function of emotion expressions, which later evolved to serve communicative functions.

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4
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

According to the functionalist perspective, what are emotions then?

A

from their perspective emotions are generalized and (theoretically) coordinated suites of behavioral, physiological, cognitive, and affective processes selected to promote automatic, adaptive responses to recurrent environmental events that pose fitness challenges.

e. g. fear:
- detection of a potentially threatening stimuli elicits a cascade of responses (heavier breathing, sweating etc.). These responses facilitate the ability to escape.

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5
Q

Shariff & Tracy:
Evolutionary biologists make an important distinction between cues and signals. What does they mean by:
1. cues
2. signals

A
  1. a cue provides information gleaned as a by-product of something that serves an alternate adaptive purpose.
    - e.g. chewing is a reliable cue that someone is eating, but it did not evolve to communicate that information
  2. signals are evolved specifically for the purpose of communication
    - e.g. peacock plumage evolved as a hard-to-fake signal of mate quality
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6
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

What does the “two-stage-model” say about cues and signals?

A

That emotion expressions began as cues - providing information about internal states but not existing for that reason - but eventually transformed, in both form and function, to become signals (because of our social interaction and need to communicate).

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7
Q

Shariff & Tracy:

What is ritualization?

A

a process of change well reasearched in evolutionary zoology whereby an animal’s nonverbal displays become exaggerated, more visible, distinctive, and/or prototypic in order to function as reliable and effective signals.

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8
Q

Turkheimer:

What does the article say about genotype and environment?

A

Genotype is a more systematic source of variability than environment, but for reasons that are methodological rather than substantive.

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9
Q

Turkheimer:

What does the article say about twin studies?

A

Twinstudies offer a useful methodological shortcut, but do not show that genes are more fundamental than environments.

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10
Q

Turkheimer:

In the article it says that “the nature-nurture debate is over” - what is the outcome?

A

That everything is heritable.

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11
Q

Turkheimer:

The article mentions 3 laws of behavior genetics, which?

A
  1. law: All human behavioral traits are heritable (both because of influence of the environment and the genes - figure 1)
  2. law: The effect of being raised in the same family is smaller than the effect of genes
  3. law: a substantial portion of the variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by the effects of genes or families (nonshared environment/individual environment)
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12
Q

Turkheimer:
Even after the effects of genes and the shared effects of families have been accounted for, around ?? % of the differences among siblings is still left unexplained.

A

50 %

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13
Q

Turkheimer:

The unexplained portion of the differences among siblings are also called??

A

nonshared environment

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14
Q

Turkheimer:

The article states two possibilies for what quilifies an environmental event as nonshared, which?

A
  1. Objective: an event is nonshared if it is experienced by only one sibling in a family, regardless of the consequences it produces.
  2. effective: an environmental event is nonshared if it makes siblings different rather than similar, regardless of whether it was experienced by one or both of them.
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15
Q

Chabris et al:
The article propose a 4. law of behavior genetics as an addition to the 3 laws mentioned by Turkheimer. What is the 4. law?

A
  1. law: a typical human behavioral trait is associated with very many genetic variants, each of which accounts for a very small percentage of the behavioral variability

(based on the human genome project and differences in alleles (base pairs) in genes of humans)

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16
Q

Chabris et al:

What is behavioral genetics?

A

The study of the manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes (traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental illness and social attitudes.

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17
Q

Chabris et al:

The article highlights two possible explanations for the 4. law, which?

A
  1. causal chains from DNA variation to behavioral phenotypes are likely very long (longer than for physical traits - e.g. eyecolor), so the effect of any one variant on any one such trait is likely to be small.
  2. when a population is already well adapted to its environment, mutations with large effects on a focal trait are likely to have deleterious side effects.
    If the effect of a genetic variant is small enough, however, then its population frequency has some chance of drifting upward to a detectable level.
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18
Q

Chabris et al:

is it TRUE/FALSE that there might be a gene for one complex trait?

A

FALSE! it is mistaken to believe that

What the 4. law adds to this understanding is that most genetic variability in behavior between individuals is attributable to genetic differences that are each responsible for very small behavioral differences.

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19
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
What is evolutionary political psychology?
A

The field concerned with the application of evolutionary psychology to the study of politics and the nature of the human political animal.

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20
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
According to the article, what is politics?
A

Politics aims to challenge and change other’s expectations about entitlement. It is produced by adaptations designed to solve the coordination problems that emerge from group living.

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21
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
The article mentions 4 key principles guiding an evolutionary approach to the study of politics in general and of mass politics in particular. What are the 4 key principles?
A
  1. principle: evolved political psychology is designed to operate adaptively within and between small-scale groups.
    - when modern individuals
    reason about mass political issues such as criminal justice, social welfare and immigration, they reason about them using psychological mechanisms designed to handle related adaptive problems such as counter-exploitation, cheater-detection and newcomers in the context of small-scale, ancestral group life.
  2. principle: evolved political psychology provides a “default” structure to mass politics.
    - the evolved, universal human political psychology is predicted to provide an underlying structure for political processes and institutions in modern mass societies. Institutions that “fit” or resonate with evolved psychology will be more likely to emerge.
  3. principle: Politics is an informational arms race and evolved political psychology reflects the co-evolution of informational strategies and counterstrategies.
    - In modern politics, the strategic use of information is clear in everything from military parades (signaling superior strength) to denigration of leaders of rival political parties (signalling superior leadership).
  4. principle: In mass politics, evolved political psychology is responding to events and groups without direct experience but on the basis of mental simulations aided by information from others
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22
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
To engage in political behavior, an actor needs to be able to solve 2 overarching adaptive problems, which?
A
  1. the evaluation problem: political behavior requires abilities to pass judgments on resource distributions and the rules giving rise to them.
  2. the behavioral problem: political behavior requires power to change the rules into alignment with ones evaluation.
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23
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
according to the evolutionary approach, how do people favor  policies related to distribution of resources?
A

Individuals favor policies that favor the individual

  • ancestrally the favored resource was food, help, mating opportunities
  • in modern politics, a favored resource is money
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24
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
What do we vote for on the most general level according to the evolutionary approach?
A

At the most general level, the evolutionary approach entails the prediction that an individual’s political judgments track whether the rule under ancestral circumstances would involve fitness benefits or costs for the individual given his or hers individual and situational characteristics.

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25
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
In-group influence on voting
A

The most important determinant of the likelihood of voting for a particular candidate is whether the candidate is a member of the party that people identifies as “their” party

26
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
How can our need to signal loyalty, bias our political opinions?
A

People are prone to support policies - independently of their content - if they are promoted by their party and oppose policy if the opposing partt promotes them = the need to signal loyalty (to own party)

27
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
How do our perceptions of candidates influence voting?
A

Perceptions of the COMPETENCE of political candidates are one of the strongest predictors of vote choice in modern elections.

In times of war people prefer a leader with MASCULINE, DOMINANCE-RELATED PHYSICAL TRAITS.

In times of peace such features could potentially increase the likelihood of exploration and people exhibit greater preferences for COMPETENT-LOOKING FEMININE INDIVIDIAULS

28
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
What is the task of human leaders?
A

Human leaders enjoy benefits such as power and privileged access.
In exchange human leaders are expected to coordinate solutions to collective problems of the coalitions.

29
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
In times of peace, which individual do we vote for?
A

competent-looking feminine individuals

30
Q 
Bang Petersen (HEP): 
In times of war, which individuals do we vote for?
A

masculine, dominance-related physical traits

31
Q 
Sharif & Tracy: 
what is the communicative and physiological function of: 
- embarrassment 
- shame 
- fear 
- surprise (p only)
- disgust 
- pride 
- happiness (c only)
- sadness (c only)
- anger (c only)
A

EMBARASSMENT:
Physiological: reduces/hides bodily targets from potential attack.
Communicative: communicates lessened social status, desire to appease

SHAME:
P: reduces/hides bodily targets from potential attack.
C: communicates lessened social status

FEAR:
P: wide eyes increase visual field and speed up eye movement
C: alerts others of possible threat

SURPRISE:
P: wide eyes increase visual field to unexpected stimulus

DISGUST:
P: constricted nose reduce inhalation of possible contaminants
C: warns about aversive foods as well as distasteful ideas and behaviors

PRIDE:
P: boost testosterose and increase lung capacity to prepare for agonistic others
C: communicates highened social status

HAPPINESS:
C: communicates lack of threat

SADNESS:
C: tears signal need for appeasement and elicit emphathy

ANGER:
C: communicates dominance and alerts impending threat

32
Q

Neuberg & Decioli (HEP):
The evolutionary approach to predjudice and stereotypes is different from the traditional theories. What view does the evolutionary approach take?

A

The evolutionary approach suggest that prejudices, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors can be viewed as functionally organized strategies designed to manage the threats posed by the human forms of sociality.

33
Q

Neuberg & Decioli (HEP):

What is the link between threats and emotions?

A

Different threats elicit different emotional alarms and accompanying functional syndromes of cognitions, physiological responses, and behavioral routines.

34
Q

Neuberg & Decioli (HEP):

Why are we likely to overperceive the threats of others?

A

Because social perception relies on imperfect cues - errors are inevitable. Out evolved threat-detection systems are designed to err on the side of assuming threats when there are none, rather than missing (potentially fatal) threats.

= BETTER SAFE THAN SORRY.

35
Q

Neuberg & Decioli (HEP):

According to the evolutionary approach what is a way of reducing prejudice?

A

The main principle emerging from a threat-management approach is that by reducing vulnerability to particular threats, one can reduce the related prejudices.

36
Q

Neuberg & Decioli (HEP):

How are Kin selection and racial predjudices connected?

A

Racial prejudices might be extensions of an evolved kin-based coalitional prejudice. People might perceive racial and ethnic differences as cues indicating low genetic relatedness.

37
Q

Nettle (2006):

Ultimate explanations =

A

For psychological mechanisms and behavioral tendencies to have become and remain prevalent, they must serve or have served some fitness-enhancing functions = evolutionary explanation.

38
Q

Nettle (2006):

Negative frequency-dependent selection =

A

This describes the situation in which the relative fitness of a trait is high as long as it is rare in the local population but declines as it becomes widespread.

39
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary benefits of Extraversion

A
  1. Extraversion is strongly and positively related to number of sexual partners which, for men in particular, can increase fitness.
  2. Extraversion closely correlated to trait of sensation seeking, initiate more social behavior = more social support.
40
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary costs of Extraversion

A
  1. Extraverts expose themselves to risk. Those who are hospitalized due to accident or illness are higher in extraversion than those who are not.
  2. Becoming involved in criminal or antisocial behavior.
  3. Because of their turnover of relationships, extraverts have an elevated probability of exposing their offspring to stepparenting, which is a known risk factor for child well-being.
41
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary benefits of Neuroticism

A
  1. In ancestral environments a level of neuroticism may have been necessary for avoidance of acute dangers. Anxiety enhances detection of threatening stimuli by speeding up the reaction to them, interpreting ambiguous stimuli as negative, and locking attention onto them.
  2. Neuroticism is positively correlated with competitiveness. Among university students, academic success is strongly positively correlated with neuroticism among those who are resilient enough to cope with its effects. Thus negative affect can be channeled into striving to better one’s position.
42
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary costs of Neuroticism

A
  1. High neuroticism is a strong predictor of psychiatric disorder (particularly depression and anxiety).
  2. Associated with impaired physical health presumably through chronic activation of stress mechanisms.
  3. Neuroticism is a predictor of relationship failure and social isolation.
43
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary benefits of Openness

A
  1. O is positively related to artistic creativity. Artistic domains serves to attract mates.
  2. The core of openness seems to be a divergent cognitive style that seeks novelty and complexity.
44
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary costs of Openness

A

Openness itself is positively correlated with beliefs in the paranormal. The unusual thinking style characteristic of openness can lead to nonveridical ideas about the world from supernatural or paranormal belief systems to the frank break with reality that is PSYCHOSIS.

45
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary benefits of Conscientiousness

A
  1. A by-product of conscientiousness is that immediate gratification is often delayed in favor of a longer term plan.
  2. Adoption of healthy behaviors and avoidance of unhygienic risks.
46
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary costs of Conscientiousness

A
  1. Very high levels of traits related to conscientiousness - moral principle, perfectionism, and self-control - are found in patients with eating disorders and with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
  2. Extreme self-control may lead to the missing of spontaneous opportunities to enhance reproductive success.
47
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary benefits of Agreeableness

A
  1. Strongly correlated with theory of mind abilities and the awareness of others’ mental states.
  2. Agreeable individuals have harmonious interpersonal interactions and avoid violence and interpersonal hostility.
48
Q

Nettle (2006):

Evolutionary costs of Agreeableness

A
  1. Very high agreeableness (if it led to an excessive attention to the needs and interests of others or excessive trusting) would be detrimental (skadelig) to fitness.
  2. Agreeableness is negatively related to achieved remuneration (belønning) and status and creative accomplishment is negatively related to agreeableness.
49
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

What does his study focus on?

A

Traits in relation to life outcomes.

(Not assuming that personality traits are direct causes of the outcomes. Rather exclusively interested in whether personality traits predict mortality, divorce and occupational attainment).

50
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

How do C influence/predict mortality?

A

1) Children who were more conscientious tended to live longer.
2) Conscientiousness was found to be a strong protective factor in an elderly sample.

51
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

How do Es/E influence/predict longevity?

A

Several studies have shown that dispositions reflecting Positive Emotionality or Extraversion were associated with longevity.

Optimism was related to higher rates of survival following head and neck cancer.

52
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

How do N influence/predict mortality/longevity?

A

Neuroticism and pessimism are associated with increases in one’s risk for early mortality.

BUT N may have a protective effect on mortality in young adulthood, as individuals who are more neurotic tend to avoid accidents in adolescence and young adulthood.

53
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

What traits predict/have an influence on divorce?

A

Neuroticism + Low conscientiousness

54
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

How do N predict divorce?

A

Traits associated with N (such as being anxious and overly sensitive) increased the probability of experiencing divorce.

Neuroticism is one of the strongest and most consistent personality predictors of relationship dissatisfaction, conflict, abuse, and ultimately dissolution.

People high in Neuroticism may be more likely to be exposed to daily conflicts in their relationships.

55
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

How do C/A influence divorce/marriage?

A

Individuals who were more conscientious and agreeable tended to remain longer in their marriages and avoided divorce.

56
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

What traits predict/have an influence on occupational attainment?

A

Each factor in the model has been found to be positively related to occupational attainment.

57
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

Why do all five traits have an influence on occupational attainment?

A

1) It may reflect ‘‘active niche-picking’’ whereby people choose educational and work experiences whose qualities are concordant with their own personalities.
2) Personality-to-achievement associations may reflect ‘‘recruitment effects,’’ whereby people are selected into achievement situations and are given preferential treatment on the basis of their personality characteristics.

58
Q

Roberts et al. (2007):

When considering trait effects on outcomes, what do we need to be aware of?

A

It may be the case that the combination of certain personality traits and certain social conditions creates a potent cocktail of factors that either promotes or undermines specific outcomes.

59
Q

Open Science Collaboration (2015):

What is the replication crisis?

A

That replication rates were very low (36%).

60
Q

Open Science Collaboration (2015):

What was the result of the replication study?

A

97% of original studies had significant results (P < .05). 36% of replications had significant results.

61
Q

Open Science Collaboration (2015):

What did the study conclude?

A

A large portion of replications produced WEAKER evidence for the original findings despite using materials provided by the original authors, review in advance for methodological fidelity, and high statistical power to detect the original effect sizes.

62
Q

Open Science Collaboration (2015):

Why is there a lack of replication in modern science?

A

Reproducibility is not well understood because the incentives for individual scientists prioritize novelty over replication.

Innovation is the engine of discovery and is vital for a productive, effective scientific enterprise. However innovative ideas become old news fast.

Social- og personlighedspsykologi (19 decks)

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