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Geography MA > Urban Environments > Flashcards

Urban Environments Flashcards

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1
Q

Accessibility

A

The ease with which one location can be reached from another; the degree to which people are able to obtain goods and services, such as housing and healthcare

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2
Q

Agglomeration

A

The concentration of people and their activities at particular locations e.g., a river crossing, estuary mouths, close to a mineral resource (like coal, iron, oil). Urban settlements first appear as a result of agglomeration

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3
Q

Brownfield sites

A

Land has been previously used/built on, abandoned, and now awaits a new use

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4
Q

Commute

A

The daily movement of people from their homes to the places of work

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5
Q

Commuter settlements

A

Towns of villages were significant proportion of the residents work elsewhere

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6
Q

Congestion

A

Acute overcrowding caused by high densities of traffic, business, and people

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7
Q

Conurbanisation

A

extensive urban areas resulting from the expansion of several towns or cities so that they manage together but maintain a separate identities. E.g., the West Midlands conurbation includes the cities of Birmingham, Coventry and Wolverhampton as well as a large towns, such as Sutton Coldfield, Dudley, Walsall and West Bromwich.

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8
Q

Core

A

The most important economic, political and social area of a country or global region – a centre of power

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9
Q

Counterurbanisation

A

The movement of people and employment from major cities, to smaller cities and towns, as well as to rural areas

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10
Q

Dereliction

A

Abandoned buildings, and wasteland

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11
Q

Environmental quality

A

The degree to which an area is free from air, waste, noise, and visual pollution

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12
Q

Ethnicity

A

Belonging to an ethnic group, unnoticed by common characteristics, such as race, language, or religion

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13
Q

Formal economy

A

The type of employment, where people want to receive a regular wage, pay tax and have certain rights e.g. paid holidays, sick leave

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14
Q

Greenfield sites

A

Land not use for urban development/has not been built on before

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15
Q

Industrialisation

A

The process, by which an increasing proportion of the population are employed in the manufacturing sector of the economy

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16
Q

Informal economy

A

Employment outside the official knowledge of the government

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17
Q

Infrastructure

A

The transport networks, and the water, sewage and communication systems that are vital to people and their settlements and businesses

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18
Q

Land use

A

The types of buildings, or other features that are found in an area, e.g. terrace housing, banks, industrial estates, rose, etc.

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19
Q

Land values

A

The market price of a piece of land; what people or businesses are prepared to pay for owning and occupying it

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20
Q

Mega city

A

A city or urban area with a population of larger than 10 million

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21
Q

Periphery

A

an area remote or isolated from the centre (core) of a country: it generally lags in terms of development and influence

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22
Q

Physical infrastructure

A

the services, such as transport, telecommunications, water and sewage disposal, that are vital for people and businesses

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23
Q

Pollution

A

Chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment

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24
Q

Population Density

A

The number of people in relation to the space that they occupy, normally the number of people per km*2

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25
Q

Poverty

A

where people are seriously lacking in terms of income, food, housing, basic services (clean water and sewage disposal) and access to education and healthcare. See also social deprivation

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26
Q

Push-pull factors

A

the things that encourage people to migrate from one area to another; the negatives in the area of departure (push) are balanced against the positives of the destination (pull)

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27
Q

Sanitation

A

Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the disposal of sewage and waste

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28
Q

Service provision

A

making available commercial and social services, such as shops and schools

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29
Q

Settlement

A

A place where people live, anything from an isolated farm to a vast sprawling urban area called a megalopolis

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30
Q

Shanty towns / squatter settlements

A

an area of slums built by salvaged materials; found either on the city edge or within the city, often on ground previously avoided by urban development

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31
Q

Social deprivation:

A

when the well-being and quality of life of people falls below a minimum level

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32
Q

Social polarisation

A

the process of segregation within a society based on income inequality and socio-economic status

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33
Q

Socio-economic group

A

a group of people sharing the same characteristics such as income level, type of employment, and class

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34
Q

Suburbanisation

A

the outward spread of the urban area, often at lower densities compared with the older parts of the city or town

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35
Q

Sustainability

A

meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

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36
Q

Urban fringe

A

the outer edge of a town or city when the built-up area gives way to the countryside

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37
Q

Urban re-branding

A

developing a town or city to re-image it and change people’s idea of it; promoting a town or city to a target audience or market

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38
Q

Urban regeneration

A

the investment of capital in the revival of older urban areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding (especially in areas where people and businesses have abandoned it and moved into the suburbs)

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39
Q

Urban re-imaging

A

changing the image of an urban area and the way people view it

40
Q

Urban sprawl

A

Unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding rural areas

41
Q

Urbanisation

A

the process by which an increasing proportion or percentage of a population live in urban areas

42
Q

Inner city

A

The inner city is typically found next to the CBD. It is the core of the city’s business and civic life and is the place where business and retail meet. and has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern. These were originally built to house factory workers who worked in the inner city factories.

43
Q

City

A

Cities are large urban settlements

44
Q

Urban growth

A

The rate at which the population of an urban area increases

45
Q

Greenbelt

A

A green belt is a distinct area of undeveloped land surrounding specific cities, with the aim of preventing urban sprawl/ a ring of land around a town or a city, like parks, agricultural areas, or other types of open space to limit urban sprawl

46
Q

Rural-urban fringe

A

A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often competition for land use. It is a zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres and golf courses to farmland and motorways/the area at the very edge of the city beside the countryside

47
Q

Concentrated resource consumption

A

The level of resources needed or used by a society (check in book)

48
Q

Urban sustainability

A

Urban sustainability is a way planning cities that aims to improve the social, economic, and environmental conditions of a city to ensure the quality of life for current and future residents.

49
Q

Urban vs rural settlements differences

A

Economies- residents make a living from manufacturing and services rather than agriculture
Size- urban settlements are larger in population and extent
Density- of people and buildings, higher in urban settlements
Way of life

50
Q

Which areas have the highest levels of urbanisation? Why?

A

Developing countries
because 90% of the urban increases in population are expected to occur in developing countries’ cities (IPCC 2021). This is due to both high birth rates and migration, and increasingly compounded by climate-induced migration—both domestic and across borders

51
Q

Where is the overall high overall level of urbanisation?

A

In the developed world even though rates of urbanisation is higher in developing countries

52
Q

Why is the rate of urbanisation slower in developed countries?

A

A large proportion of the population already lives in towns and cities but the built up areas of towns and cities continue to grow. Because of modern transport, communication, album way of life is gradually spreading into rural areas. In fact, the countryside and assessments are experience, but referred to as rural dilution.

53
Q

What is the urban pathway?

A

The pathway that shows how the level of organisation changes over time.
Stage one: early urbanisation– developing 20%
stage two: accelerating urbanisation – emerging 40%
stage three: mature urbanisation– developed 70%
stage four: counter urbanisation – developed below 70% (decreasing)
% - urban population percentage of the total population

54
Q

What encourages the growth of new suburbs?

A
  1. Improvements and transport allow people to move easily between the new suburbs and the town centre.
  2. Overcrowding, congestion and rising land prices in the older parts of town
  3. general decline in the quality of the residential environment near the centre
  4. the arrival of more people (from rural areas) and new businesses
  5. Cheaper, more space, greener and still connected to the city
  6. Remote work
55
Q

How do towns grow into cities?

A

Agglomeration and suburbanisation

56
Q

What are the main factors of affecting the rate of urbanisation?

A
  1. The pace of economic development – it is economic growth that drives organisation. When the growth of secondary and tertiary sectors is fast, so is the pace of urbanisation.
  2. The rate of population growth – economic growth needs an increasing supply of labour. The demand for more workers can be met in two ways: by either natural increase in the urban population, or rural – urban migration. The latter is usually by far the more important source of labour. It involves people being attracted by urban job, opportunities, and services, and by the perception that cities offer a better lifestyle.
    It is important to note that there is a sort of “multiplier effect “ here, with economic growth, encouraging population growth. Population growth, in turn, makes more labour available and more people need more services. The effect of this is more economic growth.
57
Q

What encourages the growth of megacities?

A
  1. World – migration (young people, especially are drawn to live in these megacities by the “buzz “ feeling close to “it’s all happening “. There is kudos and “street cred “ living and working in such “cool “ places)
  2. Economies of scale – there are advantages from cramming as much as possible into one mega city rather than into a number of small cities. Since distances within mega city are less than between small cities, there are financial savings (economies of scale) in terms of transport. Communication between people and businesses (another economy) will be easier.
  3. The multiplier fact – once a large city is prospering, it gather them am mental, which will carry it forward. This lead to yet more prosperity and growth. There are more jobs, so more people move into the city, which means there are more people who need goods and services. This creates more jobs and so the cycle goes on.
58
Q

What are the negative attributes of megacities

A

Megacities, prosper and grow at the expensive towns, cities and regions elsewhere within the country. Megacities become powerful cause that create large peripheries around them.

59
Q

What distinguishes a global city from a mega city?

A

Global cities are identified and recognised worldwide, as places of great prestige, status, power, and influence. All global cities are critical hubs in the growing global economy. The three most important global cities are London, New York and Tokyo. They are the financial centres of the global economy, which is why they have power and influence. Each of these three cities is the hub of a network of smaller global cities. Four global cities are located outside these three networks – Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, when errors and Sydney and are all in the southern hemisphere.

60
Q

Problems of rapid urbanisation

A
  1. Housing – rapid growth of emerging city is caused by people moving from rural areas or smaller towns. When they arrive, there is no one for them to live, especially as many of them are looking for low-cost housing. Millions live in what were meant to be temporary shantytown or Scott assessments. Even for people with money, the demand for housing exceeds supplies. As a result, housing is expensive relative to wages. In general, because of poor housing, the most so after housing is close to the city centre with the shops and places of work.
  2. Access to water and electricity – often the provision of basic services does not keep up with the growth of population. As a consequence, not all parts of built-up areas will be provided with running water, sanitation or electricity.
  3. Traffic congestion and transport – the provision of proper rose and public transport is another aspect of city life that lies behind the growth and population. As a result, transport systems become overloaded and overcrowded, and traffic congestion is a major problem for everyone rich or poor. The high numbers of vehicles also causes high levels of atmospheric pollution in cities.
  4. Health – in many cities, there are not enough doctors, clinics or hospitals to deal with the rapid increase in population. When large parts of a city have little or no access to clean water or sanitation diseases and infection, spread quickly, atmospheric pollution leads to wise spread, breathing problems.
  5. Education – rapper, population growth also means a lack of schools. Although most cities managed to provide some primary education, not all children go onto secondary school. This is because of the cost and because many children have to work to help support their family.
  6. Employment – many people are unable to find proper paid work . This leads them to be either unemployed or to become part of the massive informal sector.
  7. Social problems – the post areas are often inhabited by violence. Street guys involved in drug trafficking, murder, rape and robbery, as well as other crimes because they are left with no other option.
  8. Environmental issues – waste, traffic, pollution, water and air.
61
Q

Describe the four zones of a city

A

The core– the oldest part of the city, which normally contains the central business district and some of the earliest buildings.
The inner city ring – early suburbs, so this has old housing and often some non-residential land uses
A suburban ring – present suburbs with housing as the dominant land use
an urban fringe – countryside, being eroded by the outward spread of the built-up area to provide space. The housing and non-residential uses.

62
Q

How are residential areas segregated?

A

Social class, type of occupation, and ethnicity, personal wealth
- The poorest people have to live in residential areas and many of them are unable to buy a home so instead they have to rent.

63
Q

Urban challenges in the developed world

A

Economic – the industrialisation, globalisation, free supply, transport, and traffic, energy supply, service provision
Social – social services, and housing, poverty, and deprivation, ethnic aggregation, quality of life, aging, population, terrorism, and crime
Environmental – ecological footprint, pollution, and waste disposal, resources, such as energy, land, water, green space, hazard risk, sustainability

64
Q

Urban challenges in the developing world and emerging worlds

A

Informal settlements, fire, crime, and the spread of diseases, which are often linked to overcrowding. Lack of proper sanitation and waste disposal, as well as pollution.

65
Q

Reasons for urban and growth change on the urban fringe

A

Push factors- housing is old, congested and relatively expensive. There are various forms of environmental pollution – air quality is poor, and noise levels are high. Companies find that are there is a shortage of land for building new shops, offices and factories so unused land is costly.
Pull factors- land is cheaper so houses are larger. Factories can be more spacious and have plenty of room for workers to park their cars. Closeness to the main roads and motorways allow for quicker and easier customer contacts. New developments on the outskirts are favoured by the personal mobility allowed by car drivers.

66
Q

What new non-residential developments are happening around the urban fringe

A

Retail parks - less expensive, accessible for people out of the city (foot full), near the main road – transport and connections
Industrial estates- more space, near main road, good for transport
Business parks - accessible, cheaper, more space
Science parks- need space to expand, near unis and research centres, good connections
Golf course – Leicester facility, more space for cheaper
Industrial Park, distribution centre – cheaper land, more space, blowing regulations in city centre, prevent them from being in the city centre

67
Q

Advantages of Brownfield sites

A

Reduces the loss of countryside and land that might be put to agricultural or recreational use, help to survive, old and disused urban areas, substance, already in place, located near to main areas of employment. There is already existing infrastructure and urban areas.

68
Q

Disadvantages of Brownfield sites

A

Often more expensive because all buildings have to be cleared and land made free of pollution. Often surrounded by rundown areas so does not appeal to more wealthy people as residential locations. Higher levels of pollution; less healthy. May not have good access by road.

69
Q

Advantages of Greenfield sites

A

Relatively cheap and rates of house, building are faster. The layout is not hampered by previous development so can easily be made efficient and pleasant. Healthier environment. Proximity of countryside, leisure and recreation. May reduce traffic and congestion in cities. Newer sites are easier to build on as there is a fresh start.

70
Q

Disadvantages of Greenfield sites

A

Valuable farmland, recreational space and attractive scenery is lost. Development causes noisy and light pollution in the surrounding countryside. Wildlife and the habitats lost. Encourages further suburban sprawl. Often not sustainable. People may protest to Greenfield developments. Many greenfield sites need new drainage, electricity roads which would all have to be produced. Greenfield sites can suck out the core from towns and shops.

71
Q

How to make urban living more sustainable

A

Use renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources, use energy, more efficiently, relying on public, rather than private transport, improving the physical infrastructure (clean water, and proper sanitation), improving social services, and access to them, improving the quality of life (particularly of the urban poor)

72
Q

Where is Curitiba?

A

In Southwest Brazil, and has a population of well over 2 million. It is widely recognised as a good example of planning. The planning started in 1968, when the cities population was at 430,000.

73
Q

What is the Curitiba master plan?

A

Five. Main roads which were converging on the city centre, were converted into dual carriageways separated by central two – Lane carriageway for exclusive use by express buses. Triple, articulated buses provide fast, efficient and cheap transport, and this is persuaded people to leave their cars at home. During the rush hours buses run every 60 seconds and are always full. The network is now used by 70% of the city cities inhabitants. One allows passengers to travel anywhere on the network. Buses now use biofuels and this has reduced pollution.

74
Q

How is flooding prevented in Curitiba?

A

Flats are prevented in Curitiba by using lakes created within parks. Grass growth is controlled by grazing sheep

75
Q

How do different countries manage slums?

A

Some countries, bulldoze and clear, slums, but some clear away and redevelop or relocate. Some countries choose ignore them and others improve them by self help or site and services schemes.

76
Q

Who are the stake holders in slums?

A

Slum residence, residents living nearby, utility suppliers (can they supply it and receive payment?) , representatives in parliament or on city councils ( how keen are they to help?), landowners and property developers (can these sites be replaced with housing and could the land be sold cheaply), employers, planners (what do they want?), government, national/ international charities

77
Q

How are urban and settlements distinguished

A

The functions, e.g. businesses, manufacturing, processing, services. Transport links.
Their size.
The high population

78
Q

What is the cycle of urbanisation?

A

Urbanisation (growth) , suburbanisation (cities grow noisy and polluted) – counterurbanisation (ppl move to the countryside) – re urbanisation and the cycle is repeated ( people move back to the city)

79
Q

What does a bypass do?

A

Reduces traffic in the city

80
Q

What causes increased urbanisation?

A

Push- conflict, lower wages, lack of opportunity in country side, lack of transport links, lack of services, lack of investment, natural disasters, agricultural problems, cash crops (crops being bought up)
Pull- high, paying jobs, more jobs, better services, cultural and political, hubs, amenities, family, friends, already live in there, universities, better, infrastructure, and formal employment, better housing, entertainment, agglomeration

81
Q

Changes affecting suburbs today

A

Suburbs, being homogenous – the idea that a satin person might live in the suburbs might detect some people from living there. Transportation is expensive. sustainable housing and the aging population of being in suburbs will create the need for modernisation.

82
Q

Causes of counterurbanisation

A

Good, quality housing is available and villages, Menchú opportunities, social reasons, environmental and social problems with it in cities, push people away from urban areas, improvements, and rural transport, the growth and information can communication, tech, ology, excellent schools, and beautiful scenery, the growth of industrial and business parks

83
Q

Approaches cities can use to rebrand and re-image

A

Infrastructure improvement, reimaging using local authorities and private companies, creating a positive change through retail sports leisure, culture, science and sustainability. In addition, culture like museum, stadiums (and shopping), entertainment attracts people to areas and they spend money there.

84
Q

Gentrification

A

A consequence of urban regeneration. When poor areas are changed by wealthy people moving in, making housing better and more expensive, which attracts new businesses and results, and the people living there before, being displaced. This causes a changing demographic.
Poor areas, cheap and charming inner city areas, character, history, historical significance makes an area attractive to developers for urban gentrification

85
Q

The negatives of gentrification

A

People are displaced, but the winners are the wealthy and the private sectors who are buying up housing sites and residential areas

86
Q

Why is urban regeneration good/bad?

A

It provides improvements to quality of life, quality of urban environments, generated new jobs, new housing opportunities for the residents
Bad- makes an area unaffordable for people who lived there before therefore pushing them out (gentrification) or are displaced by local councils for redevelopment purposes and are bought up by the highest bidder or the private sector, which means many people are placed in temporary housing with long waiting lists. Many businesses are displaced as well and older people who can’t afford to pay.

87
Q

What is the bid rent theory?

A

This theory suggests that city centres rent values are highest. Retail pays landlords the highest amounts of rent to locate the – so shops and restaurants are often and city centres. Moving out of the centre. The next land use is industrial (manufacturing business parks) with residential areas dominating in the suburbs.

88
Q

What is the main factor affecting land in high income countries?

A

Land value which is traditionally higher in the city of a centre where accessibility is the greatest. The Peakland value intersection. PVLI is the point which, with the highest land value and from here, land price decline in line with the theory of distance decay. This theory recognises that there are other places of economic value other than the CBD.

89
Q

Why is there a housing crisis?

A
  • Because of the growing population which leads to a demand for more housing which results in more expensive housing prices, small spaces, and lack of housing
    Social: people marrying later, growing population, rise, and divorces, extended families, not living together, aging population, Greater demand for one and two bedroom properties being built
    Economic: house, price, increase, mortgage, companies, and banks, offering 100% mortgages, so people can buy now, and save later, the population of the UK as wealthier than ever before
    Political: more housing is being built, eTown being built by the government
90
Q

Lagos

A

Lagos lies in south-western Nigeria on the Atlantic coast in the Gulf of Guinea. It exports lots of oil and petroleum products and it is a financial hotspot. Lagos is the most populous connotation in Nigeria with an official population of 8 million, but it is thought to be much larger. It is a huge metropolis with a harbour. It is a cultural hub, political centre, residential enclave for the wealthy, it has a leading port, economic centre, Transport, and it has the Nigerian movie industry, banking hub

91
Q

Why do ethnic groups segregate?

A

internal factors – religion and cultural affiliation, cuisine, family, and relational ties, provides protection against racial abuse, religious, schools, or schools, taught in different languages
External factors – migration of the majority population, where a minority is moving in, lack of religious centres, estate agents, being discriminatory, discrimination in the workplace, language barrier, qualifications, not being recognised, hate towards certain cultures or ethnicities (social exclusion), political policies Such as the apartheid in South Africa, which can be hard to break down

92
Q

Drivers of inequality in London

A

Rising house prices, rising cost-of-living, wage is not increasing with inflation, which makes the relative pay less.

93
Q

Spiral of decline

A
  1. The industrialisation/closure of local industries and employment, which leads to increased unemployment.
  2. High rates of unemployment leads to a decline in health which leads to pressure on services
  3. Potential increase in crime due to lack of opportunities and lack of income results and less tax income for local council.
  4. Increased pressure on services and financial challenges, result an increased deprivation and less investment in private enterprises.
  5. As a result of this, the cycle repeats and the area becomes the last desirable for residents and businesses.
  6. Gentrification could remove this area from the cycle of decline, but gentrification doesn’t help everyone.
94
Q

Consequences of socio, economic segregation

A

Generational injustice, which means that pensioners are paper millionaires, which is only accessible if they sell their properties. Education because disadvantage schools leave many children at a loss. Poverty and inequality and people ownjng houses.

95
Q

The green swap program in Curitiba

A

Citizens are asked to sort rubbish and organic, and in organic, and they get paid basic food, fruit and vegetables

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