Urban Environments Flashcards
1
Q
Accessibility
A
The ease with which one location can be reached from another; the degree to which people are able to obtain goods and services, such as housing and healthcare
2
Q
Agglomeration
A
The concentration of people and their activities at particular locations e.g., a river crossing, estuary mouths, close to a mineral resource (like coal, iron, oil). Urban settlements first appear as a result of agglomeration
3
Q
Brownfield sites
A
Land has been previously used/built on, abandoned, and now awaits a new use
4
Q
Commute
A
The daily movement of people from their homes to the places of work
5
Q
Commuter settlements
A
Towns of villages were significant proportion of the residents work elsewhere
6
Q
Congestion
A
Acute overcrowding caused by high densities of traffic, business, and people
7
Q
Conurbanisation
A
extensive urban areas resulting from the expansion of several towns or cities so that they manage together but maintain a separate identities. E.g., the West Midlands conurbation includes the cities of Birmingham, Coventry and Wolverhampton as well as a large towns, such as Sutton Coldfield, Dudley, Walsall and West Bromwich.
8
Q
Core
A
The most important economic, political and social area of a country or global region – a centre of power
9
Q
Counterurbanisation
A
The movement of people and employment from major cities, to smaller cities and towns, as well as to rural areas
10
Q
Dereliction
A
Abandoned buildings, and wasteland
11
Q
Environmental quality
A
The degree to which an area is free from air, waste, noise, and visual pollution
12
Q
Ethnicity
A
Belonging to an ethnic group, unnoticed by common characteristics, such as race, language, or religion
13
Q
Formal economy
A
The type of employment, where people want to receive a regular wage, pay tax and have certain rights e.g. paid holidays, sick leave
14
Q
Greenfield sites
A
Land not use for urban development/has not been built on before
15
Q
Industrialisation
A
The process, by which an increasing proportion of the population are employed in the manufacturing sector of the economy
16
Q
Informal economy
A
Employment outside the official knowledge of the government
17
Q
Infrastructure
A
The transport networks, and the water, sewage and communication systems that are vital to people and their settlements and businesses
18
Q
Land use
A
The types of buildings, or other features that are found in an area, e.g. terrace housing, banks, industrial estates, rose, etc.
19
Q
Land values
A
The market price of a piece of land; what people or businesses are prepared to pay for owning and occupying it
20
Q
Mega city
A
A city or urban area with a population of larger than 10 million
21
Q
Periphery
A
an area remote or isolated from the centre (core) of a country: it generally lags in terms of development and influence
22
Q
Physical infrastructure
A
the services, such as transport, telecommunications, water and sewage disposal, that are vital for people and businesses
23
Q
Pollution
A
Chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment
24
Q
Population Density
A
The number of people in relation to the space that they occupy, normally the number of people per km*2
25
Poverty
where people are seriously lacking in terms of income, food, housing, basic services (clean water and sewage disposal) and access to education and healthcare. See also social deprivation
26
Push-pull factors
the things that encourage people to migrate from one area to another; the negatives in the area of departure (push) are balanced against the positives of the destination (pull)
27
Sanitation
Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the disposal of sewage and waste
28
Service provision
making available commercial and social services, such as shops and schools
29
Settlement
A place where people live, anything from an isolated farm to a vast sprawling urban area called a megalopolis
30
Shanty towns / squatter settlements
an area of slums built by salvaged materials; found either on the city edge or within the city, often on ground previously avoided by urban development
31
Social deprivation:
when the well-being and quality of life of people falls below a minimum level
32
Social polarisation
the process of segregation within a society based on income inequality and socio-economic status
33
Socio-economic group
a group of people sharing the same characteristics such as income level, type of employment, and class
34
Suburbanisation
the outward spread of the urban area, often at lower densities compared with the older parts of the city or town
35
Sustainability
meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
36
Urban fringe
the outer edge of a town or city when the built-up area gives way to the countryside
37
Urban re-branding
developing a town or city to re-image it and change people's idea of it; promoting a town or city to a target audience or market
38
Urban regeneration
the investment of capital in the revival of older urban areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding (especially in areas where people and businesses have abandoned it and moved into the suburbs)
39
Urban re-imaging
changing the image of an urban area and the way people view it
40
Urban sprawl
Unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding rural areas
41
Urbanisation
the process by which an increasing proportion or percentage of a population live in urban areas
42
Inner city
The inner city is typically found next to the CBD. It is the core of the city's business and civic life and is the place where business and retail meet. and has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern. These were originally built to house factory workers who worked in the inner city factories.
43
City
Cities are large urban settlements
44
Urban growth
The rate at which the population of an urban area increases
45
Greenbelt
A green belt is a distinct area of undeveloped land surrounding specific cities, with the aim of preventing urban sprawl/ a ring of land around a town or a city, like parks, agricultural areas, or other types of open space to limit urban sprawl
46
Rural-urban fringe
A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often competition for land use. It is a zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres and golf courses to farmland and motorways/the area at the very edge of the city beside the countryside
47
Concentrated resource consumption
The level of resources needed or used by a society (check in book)
48
Urban sustainability
Urban sustainability is a way planning cities that aims to improve the social, economic, and environmental conditions of a city to ensure the quality of life for current and future residents.
49
Urban vs rural settlements differences
Economies- residents make a living from manufacturing and services rather than agriculture
Size- urban settlements are larger in population and extent
Density- of people and buildings, higher in urban settlements
Way of life
50
Which areas have the highest levels of urbanisation? Why?
Developing countries
because 90% of the urban increases in population are expected to occur in developing countries' cities (IPCC 2021). This is due to both high birth rates and migration, and increasingly compounded by climate-induced migration—both domestic and across borders
51
Where is the overall high overall level of urbanisation?
In the developed world even though rates of urbanisation is higher in developing countries
52
Why is the rate of urbanisation slower in developed countries?
A large proportion of the population already lives in towns and cities but the built up areas of towns and cities continue to grow. Because of modern transport, communication, album way of life is gradually spreading into rural areas. In fact, the countryside and assessments are experience, but referred to as rural dilution.
53
What is the urban pathway?
The pathway that shows how the level of organisation changes over time.
Stage one: early urbanisation– developing 20%
stage two: accelerating urbanisation – emerging 40%
stage three: mature urbanisation– developed 70%
stage four: counter urbanisation – developed below 70% (decreasing)
% - urban population percentage of the total population
54
What encourages the growth of new suburbs?
1. Improvements and transport allow people to move easily between the new suburbs and the town centre.
2. Overcrowding, congestion and rising land prices in the older parts of town
3. general decline in the quality of the residential environment near the centre
4. the arrival of more people (from rural areas) and new businesses
5. Cheaper, more space, greener and still connected to the city
6. Remote work
55
How do towns grow into cities?
Agglomeration and suburbanisation
56
What are the main factors of affecting the rate of urbanisation?
1. The pace of economic development – it is economic growth that drives organisation. When the growth of secondary and tertiary sectors is fast, so is the pace of urbanisation.
2. The rate of population growth – economic growth needs an increasing supply of labour. The demand for more workers can be met in two ways: by either natural increase in the urban population, or rural – urban migration. The latter is usually by far the more important source of labour. It involves people being attracted by urban job, opportunities, and services, and by the perception that cities offer a better lifestyle.
It is important to note that there is a sort of “multiplier effect “ here, with economic growth, encouraging population growth. Population growth, in turn, makes more labour available and more people need more services. The effect of this is more economic growth.
57
What encourages the growth of megacities?
1. World – migration (young people, especially are drawn to live in these megacities by the “buzz “ feeling close to “it’s all happening “. There is kudos and “street cred “ living and working in such “cool “ places)
2. Economies of scale – there are advantages from cramming as much as possible into one mega city rather than into a number of small cities. Since distances within mega city are less than between small cities, there are financial savings (economies of scale) in terms of transport. Communication between people and businesses (another economy) will be easier.
3. The multiplier fact – once a large city is prospering, it gather them am mental, which will carry it forward. This lead to yet more prosperity and growth. There are more jobs, so more people move into the city, which means there are more people who need goods and services. This creates more jobs and so the cycle goes on.
58
What are the negative attributes of megacities
Megacities, prosper and grow at the expensive towns, cities and regions elsewhere within the country. Megacities become powerful cause that create large peripheries around them.
59
What distinguishes a global city from a mega city?
Global cities are identified and recognised worldwide, as places of great prestige, status, power, and influence. All global cities are critical hubs in the growing global economy. The three most important global cities are London, New York and Tokyo. They are the financial centres of the global economy, which is why they have power and influence. Each of these three cities is the hub of a network of smaller global cities. Four global cities are located outside these three networks – Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, when errors and Sydney and are all in the southern hemisphere.
60
Problems of rapid urbanisation
1. Housing – rapid growth of emerging city is caused by people moving from rural areas or smaller towns. When they arrive, there is no one for them to live, especially as many of them are looking for low-cost housing. Millions live in what were meant to be temporary shantytown or Scott assessments. Even for people with money, the demand for housing exceeds supplies. As a result, housing is expensive relative to wages. In general, because of poor housing, the most so after housing is close to the city centre with the shops and places of work.
2. Access to water and electricity – often the provision of basic services does not keep up with the growth of population. As a consequence, not all parts of built-up areas will be provided with running water, sanitation or electricity.
3. Traffic congestion and transport – the provision of proper rose and public transport is another aspect of city life that lies behind the growth and population. As a result, transport systems become overloaded and overcrowded, and traffic congestion is a major problem for everyone rich or poor. The high numbers of vehicles also causes high levels of atmospheric pollution in cities.
4. Health – in many cities, there are not enough doctors, clinics or hospitals to deal with the rapid increase in population. When large parts of a city have little or no access to clean water or sanitation diseases and infection, spread quickly, atmospheric pollution leads to wise spread, breathing problems.
5. Education – rapper, population growth also means a lack of schools. Although most cities managed to provide some primary education, not all children go onto secondary school. This is because of the cost and because many children have to work to help support their family.
6. Employment – many people are unable to find proper paid work . This leads them to be either unemployed or to become part of the massive informal sector.
7. Social problems – the post areas are often inhabited by violence. Street guys involved in drug trafficking, murder, rape and robbery, as well as other crimes because they are left with no other option.
8. Environmental issues – waste, traffic, pollution, water and air.
61
Describe the four zones of a city
The core– the oldest part of the city, which normally contains the central business district and some of the earliest buildings.
The inner city ring – early suburbs, so this has old housing and often some non-residential land uses
A suburban ring – present suburbs with housing as the dominant land use
an urban fringe – countryside, being eroded by the outward spread of the built-up area to provide space. The housing and non-residential uses.
62
How are residential areas segregated?
Social class, type of occupation, and ethnicity, personal wealth
- The poorest people have to live in residential areas and many of them are unable to buy a home so instead they have to rent.
63
Urban challenges in the developed world
Economic – the industrialisation, globalisation, free supply, transport, and traffic, energy supply, service provision
Social – social services, and housing, poverty, and deprivation, ethnic aggregation, quality of life, aging, population, terrorism, and crime
Environmental – ecological footprint, pollution, and waste disposal, resources, such as energy, land, water, green space, hazard risk, sustainability
64
Urban challenges in the developing world and emerging worlds
Informal settlements, fire, crime, and the spread of diseases, which are often linked to overcrowding. Lack of proper sanitation and waste disposal, as well as pollution.
65
Reasons for urban and growth change on the urban fringe
Push factors- housing is old, congested and relatively expensive. There are various forms of environmental pollution – air quality is poor, and noise levels are high. Companies find that are there is a shortage of land for building new shops, offices and factories so unused land is costly.
Pull factors- land is cheaper so houses are larger. Factories can be more spacious and have plenty of room for workers to park their cars. Closeness to the main roads and motorways allow for quicker and easier customer contacts. New developments on the outskirts are favoured by the personal mobility allowed by car drivers.
66
What new non-residential developments are happening around the urban fringe
Retail parks - less expensive, accessible for people out of the city (foot full), near the main road – transport and connections
Industrial estates- more space, near main road, good for transport
Business parks - accessible, cheaper, more space
Science parks- need space to expand, near unis and research centres, good connections
Golf course – Leicester facility, more space for cheaper
Industrial Park, distribution centre – cheaper land, more space, blowing regulations in city centre, prevent them from being in the city centre
67
Advantages of Brownfield sites
Reduces the loss of countryside and land that might be put to agricultural or recreational use, help to survive, old and disused urban areas, substance, already in place, located near to main areas of employment. There is already existing infrastructure and urban areas.
68
Disadvantages of Brownfield sites
Often more expensive because all buildings have to be cleared and land made free of pollution. Often surrounded by rundown areas so does not appeal to more wealthy people as residential locations. Higher levels of pollution; less healthy. May not have good access by road.
69
Advantages of Greenfield sites
Relatively cheap and rates of house, building are faster. The layout is not hampered by previous development so can easily be made efficient and pleasant. Healthier environment. Proximity of countryside, leisure and recreation. May reduce traffic and congestion in cities. Newer sites are easier to build on as there is a fresh start.
70
Disadvantages of Greenfield sites
Valuable farmland, recreational space and attractive scenery is lost. Development causes noisy and light pollution in the surrounding countryside. Wildlife and the habitats lost. Encourages further suburban sprawl. Often not sustainable. People may protest to Greenfield developments. Many greenfield sites need new drainage, electricity roads which would all have to be produced. Greenfield sites can suck out the core from towns and shops.
71
How to make urban living more sustainable
Use renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources, use energy, more efficiently, relying on public, rather than private transport, improving the physical infrastructure (clean water, and proper sanitation), improving social services, and access to them, improving the quality of life (particularly of the urban poor)
72
Where is Curitiba?
In Southwest Brazil, and has a population of well over 2 million. It is widely recognised as a good example of planning. The planning started in 1968, when the cities population was at 430,000.
73
What is the Curitiba master plan?
Five. Main roads which were converging on the city centre, were converted into dual carriageways separated by central two – Lane carriageway for exclusive use by express buses. Triple, articulated buses provide fast, efficient and cheap transport, and this is persuaded people to leave their cars at home. During the rush hours buses run every 60 seconds and are always full. The network is now used by 70% of the city cities inhabitants. One allows passengers to travel anywhere on the network. Buses now use biofuels and this has reduced pollution.
74
How is flooding prevented in Curitiba?
Flats are prevented in Curitiba by using lakes created within parks. Grass growth is controlled by grazing sheep
75
How do different countries manage slums?
Some countries, bulldoze and clear, slums, but some clear away and redevelop or relocate. Some countries choose ignore them and others improve them by self help or site and services schemes.
76
Who are the stake holders in slums?
Slum residence, residents living nearby, utility suppliers (can they supply it and receive payment?) , representatives in parliament or on city councils ( how keen are they to help?), landowners and property developers (can these sites be replaced with housing and could the land be sold cheaply), employers, planners (what do they want?), government, national/ international charities
77
How are urban and settlements distinguished
The functions, e.g. businesses, manufacturing, processing, services. Transport links.
Their size.
The high population
78
What is the cycle of urbanisation?
Urbanisation (growth) , suburbanisation (cities grow noisy and polluted) – counterurbanisation (ppl move to the countryside) – re urbanisation and the cycle is repeated ( people move back to the city)
79
What does a bypass do?
Reduces traffic in the city
80
What causes increased urbanisation?
Push- conflict, lower wages, lack of opportunity in country side, lack of transport links, lack of services, lack of investment, natural disasters, agricultural problems, cash crops (crops being bought up)
Pull- high, paying jobs, more jobs, better services, cultural and political, hubs, amenities, family, friends, already live in there, universities, better, infrastructure, and formal employment, better housing, entertainment, agglomeration
81
Changes affecting suburbs today
Suburbs, being homogenous – the idea that a satin person might live in the suburbs might detect some people from living there. Transportation is expensive. sustainable housing and the aging population of being in suburbs will create the need for modernisation.
82
Causes of counterurbanisation
Good, quality housing is available and villages, Menchú opportunities, social reasons, environmental and social problems with it in cities, push people away from urban areas, improvements, and rural transport, the growth and information can communication, tech, ology, excellent schools, and beautiful scenery, the growth of industrial and business parks
83
Approaches cities can use to rebrand and re-image
Infrastructure improvement, reimaging using local authorities and private companies, creating a positive change through retail sports leisure, culture, science and sustainability. In addition, culture like museum, stadiums (and shopping), entertainment attracts people to areas and they spend money there.
84
Gentrification
A consequence of urban regeneration. When poor areas are changed by wealthy people moving in, making housing better and more expensive, which attracts new businesses and results, and the people living there before, being displaced. This causes a changing demographic.
Poor areas, cheap and charming inner city areas, character, history, historical significance makes an area attractive to developers for urban gentrification
85
The negatives of gentrification
People are displaced, but the winners are the wealthy and the private sectors who are buying up housing sites and residential areas
86
Why is urban regeneration good/bad?
It provides improvements to quality of life, quality of urban environments, generated new jobs, new housing opportunities for the residents
Bad- makes an area unaffordable for people who lived there before therefore pushing them out (gentrification) or are displaced by local councils for redevelopment purposes and are bought up by the highest bidder or the private sector, which means many people are placed in temporary housing with long waiting lists. Many businesses are displaced as well and older people who can’t afford to pay.
87
What is the bid rent theory?
This theory suggests that city centres rent values are highest. Retail pays landlords the highest amounts of rent to locate the – so shops and restaurants are often and city centres. Moving out of the centre. The next land use is industrial (manufacturing business parks) with residential areas dominating in the suburbs.
88
What is the main factor affecting land in high income countries?
Land value which is traditionally higher in the city of a centre where accessibility is the greatest. The Peakland value intersection. PVLI is the point which, with the highest land value and from here, land price decline in line with the theory of distance decay. This theory recognises that there are other places of economic value other than the CBD.
89
Why is there a housing crisis?
- Because of the growing population which leads to a demand for more housing which results in more expensive housing prices, small spaces, and lack of housing
Social: people marrying later, growing population, rise, and divorces, extended families, not living together, aging population, Greater demand for one and two bedroom properties being built
Economic: house, price, increase, mortgage, companies, and banks, offering 100% mortgages, so people can buy now, and save later, the population of the UK as wealthier than ever before
Political: more housing is being built, eTown being built by the government
90
Lagos
Lagos lies in south-western Nigeria on the Atlantic coast in the Gulf of Guinea. It exports lots of oil and petroleum products and it is a financial hotspot. Lagos is the most populous connotation in Nigeria with an official population of 8 million, but it is thought to be much larger. It is a huge metropolis with a harbour. It is a cultural hub, political centre, residential enclave for the wealthy, it has a leading port, economic centre, Transport, and it has the Nigerian movie industry, banking hub
91
Why do ethnic groups segregate?
internal factors – religion and cultural affiliation, cuisine, family, and relational ties, provides protection against racial abuse, religious, schools, or schools, taught in different languages
External factors – migration of the majority population, where a minority is moving in, lack of religious centres, estate agents, being discriminatory, discrimination in the workplace, language barrier, qualifications, not being recognised, hate towards certain cultures or ethnicities (social exclusion), political policies Such as the apartheid in South Africa, which can be hard to break down
92
Drivers of inequality in London
Rising house prices, rising cost-of-living, wage is not increasing with inflation, which makes the relative pay less.
93
Spiral of decline
1. The industrialisation/closure of local industries and employment, which leads to increased unemployment.
2. High rates of unemployment leads to a decline in health which leads to pressure on services
3. Potential increase in crime due to lack of opportunities and lack of income results and less tax income for local council.
4. Increased pressure on services and financial challenges, result an increased deprivation and less investment in private enterprises.
5. As a result of this, the cycle repeats and the area becomes the last desirable for residents and businesses.
6. Gentrification could remove this area from the cycle of decline, but gentrification doesn’t help everyone.
94
Consequences of socio, economic segregation
Generational injustice, which means that pensioners are paper millionaires, which is only accessible if they sell their properties. Education because disadvantage schools leave many children at a loss. Poverty and inequality and people ownjng houses.
95
The green swap program in Curitiba
Citizens are asked to sort rubbish and organic, and in organic, and they get paid basic food, fruit and vegetables
96
What is a Shanty town/squatter settlement?
An area of slums built by salvaged materials, found either on the city edge or within the city, often on ground previously destroyed by urban development
97
What are the causes of rapid urbanization?
The driving forces are:
- massive rural-urban migration
- rates of natural increase are higher in urban areas rather than rural areas
98
Main features of a megacity:
- at least 10 million inhabitants
- are the command and control centres of the international economy
- Urbanisation in the developing world has spawned a rapid growth of megacities
- regional/national/global influence
99
Explain the rate of urbanisation in HICs and LICs
There is a higher urban population in HICs because people were pulled to move there due to work oppurtunities but the rate of urbanisation is much higher in LICs because because birth rate is higher and LICs have more growing industries, economic development, and rural- urban migration.
100
Push and pull factors of a city
Push – expensive (especially housing), space, pollution,
Pull – good employment oppurtunities, tend to have better education and services, culture, political hubs, universities, education, informal employment, better housing, entertainment, agglomeration, density and amenities, family and friends
Push and pull of countryside:
push – lower wages, conflict, lack of opportunity, lack of investment in services, natural disaster, famine, not enough land leading to over-farming, agricultural problems, cash crops (being bought up)
101
What is the cycle of urbanization?
Urbanisation – people moving to the city form urban areas
Suburbanisation – Cities grow more noisy and polluted. Cost of living too expensive and people move away
Counter Urbanisation- people move to the country in pursuit of a quiet and peaceful life that will be better quality
Re-urbanisation – people move back to cities associated with a period of Urban regeneration/rebranding
repeat
102
Why is there a housing crisis (social, political, economic)?
Social
- people are marrying later in life
- British society has changed- extended families don’t really live together any more. + rise in the number of divorced families meaning they live in two different dwellings
- the UK has an ageing population which means that more houses are needed for the younger generation
- UK population is expected to increase by 4.1 million between 2001 and 2021 meaning more people will need housing
- now a greater demand for one and two bedroom properties
Economic
- house prices are set to increase leading people to live in smaller dwellings
- Mortgage companies and banks now offer 100% mortgages, buy now and pay later
- population of UK is now wealthier than ever before which means that people can afford to buy at an earlier age
- greater demand for housing
Politics
- government promised to make 3 million new homes by 2020 under the sustainable communities
- gov. developing a series of eco-towns to help with housing demand and carbon footprint of new homes
- 200,000 homes to be built in South East
103
Why is there a housing crisis (social)?
Social
- people are marrying later in life
- British society has changed- extended families don’t really live together any more. + rise in the number of divorced families meaning they live in two different dwellings
- the UK has an ageing population which means that more houses are needed for the younger generation
- UK population is expected to increase by 4.1 million between 2001 and 2021 meaning more people will need housing
- now a greater demand for one and two bedroom properties
104
Why is there a housing crisis (economic)?
Economic
- house prices are set to increase leading people to live in smaller dwellings
- Mortgage companies and banks now offer 100% mortgages, buy now and pay later
- population of UK is now wealthier than ever before which means that people can afford to buy at an earlier age
- greater demand for housing
105
Why is there a housing crisis (political)?
Politics
- government promised to make 3 million new homes by 2020 under the sustainable communities
- gov. developing a series of eco-towns to help with housing demand and carbon footprint of new homes
- 200,000 homes to be built in South East
106
Pros and Cons of Brownfield sites. What are they?
Developing a piece of land that has already been developed on
PROS
- eases pressure on Greenfield sites and is more sustainable – reuses land
- new housing can lead to gentrification and improving and area, crime rates become better
- providing transport networks in urban areas is easier where pop. Density is high
- pre-existing infrastructure in urban areas
- new employment opportunities where they’re developed
- can bring a dead area back to life
CONS
clearing rubbish from brownfield sites can be expensive
- house prices can increase in an inner city area as people are encouraged back into new areas
107
Pros and Cons of Greenfield sites. What are they?
PROS
- building on Greenfield sites may reduce traffic and congestion in cities
- large family houses are more likely to be built on Greenfield sites as there is more space
- often built on the edge of town meaning there could be less congestion, be a more pleasant environment, more place to expand
CONS
- people may protest
- new infrastructure such as drains, electricity, roads would all have to be produced
- often not sustainable
-sucks the ‘core’ out of towns (shops)
108
What are the characteristics of earlier industrial western cities? Why have these aspects been made redundant?
- had industrial functions at the heart of their city
- inner city docks
- railheads
- now these functions have become reductant
- these aspects have been made redundant because of the rise in service economy on the urban economy which has changed the forms and functions of a city
- de-industrialisation has removed many of these features
- many industrial areas have moved further back due to cost of land and better transport connections. Rapid growth of the financial service industry turbochanged modern London and pushed these industrial aspects out (especially after deregulation of London’s banks)
109
What are the characteristics of postmodern western cities?
- fragmented urban form
- focused service and form
- traditional industries
- eclectic, varied architecture
- flagships developed
- greater ethnic anniversary
- greater inequality, polarization
110
Why is Lagos important?
- the most populous conurbation in Nigeria with an official population of 8 million, but thought to be much larger (20 million).
- huge metropolis with a harbour
- The CBD is characterized by high rises and contains many of the city’s wholesale markets
- Cultural, Political – Federal government based there, Economic hub – exports crude oil, petroleum products (coastal location for oil) which account for 20% Nigeria’s GDP, 90% foreign exchange earnings
- Movie industry
111
Where is Lagos? How is it important globally?
- Southwestern Nigeria
- megacity
- On the Atlantic coast in the Gulf of Guinea
- Western Africa
- Lagos lagoon
- Has two major Urban islands in Lagos Lagoon : Lagos island, Victoria Island
- Borders countries such as Chad, Cameroon, CAR
- near the equator
- 2nd largest and fastest growing city in Africa and the 7th fastest growing in the world
- financial hotspot+population growth
112
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (low quality of life, providing services, health)
low quality of life, providing services, health
- scavengers sometimes live on disposal sites
- working on a dump can very unsafe – pockets of gas can cause fires, meaning they can’t work
113
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? ( providing clean water, sanitation in energy, providing services)
providing clean water, sanitation in energy and other service provision
- not enough infrastructure for growing population
- the government and NGOs have provided funding to better the water sanitation because it can carry a number of bacteria, such as coliform, well above the recommended levels
- lack of clean water leads to health issues
- lack of energy means people use genertators (polluting) (not enough power – so it switches off )
114
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (education)
education
- poorly serviced areas like health services and police stations
- lack of schools mean a rise in unemployment and crime
115
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (traffic congestion)
Traffic congestion
- because roads built before population boom and now they aren’t suitable for the quantity of people on the roads now
- lack of investment in roads
explanation
- polluting (often if they’re second hand) – reduces quality of life
- 3 tonnes of lead injected into Lagos’ air everyday
- workers can’t get to and from work
- dangerous for ill people – puts pressure on police and ambulances
116
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (squatter settlement built on marginal land)
squatter settlement built on marginal land
- not enough land/housing for the growing population
expalanation
- highest number of incomplete buildings
- people sometimes sleep there, make shops, scavange
- lacks services (water, sanitation) – dangerous
- unsafe
117
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (informal economy)
informal economy
- not enough jobs for the population
explanation
- scavangers sort rubbish, sort it and find it – buyers buy it off of them and sell it on in bulk - burning copper to remove plastic coating – illegal so it is done at night
- cattle market – cattle brokers and traders - every part is used
- not taxed (gov. loses out) and lack of worker’s rights
118
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (reducing unemployment)
reducing unemployment and crime
- finding an alternative to the informal economy
- lack of investment in police
explanation
- making new jobs – using cattle blood and not wasting it
- profit split between many people
- city or opportunity and optimism
- thieves punished by communities and own personal system - e.g., scavangers with an elected person
- puts pressure on services
119
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (waste disposal)
waste disposal
- people living without the infrastructure to get rid of rubbish
explanation
- Lagos receives money from the government and NGOs to tackle the issue
- scavangers sort and take waste
- unsafe, water and air pollution
120
What urban challenges does Lagos face and explain them? (Air and water pollution)
Air and water pollution
- overdemand
explanation
- food, air, water pollution is a serious problem affecting Lagos. Waster is sometimes toxic and can make its way into soil, gorund water which results in dangerous levels of iron and nitrate contaminating food and water
- lacks sanitary infrastructure - unsafe
121
Is ubran expansion of the greenbelt the best solution to the London housing crisis?
Yes – the policy itself is outdated as it hasn’t accommodated for London’s population growth, demand for more affordable housing, should be a controlled development of the GB such as corridors of development with connections to other cities and near motorways near pre-existing structures (e.g., London- Cambridge belt), the land isn’t biodiverse, ecologically friendly or biodiverse so better use of land, explicit links to greenfield sites
no – urban regeneration, redevelopment and regeneration is better because it can improve a previously abandoned urban area. Better economically and ecologically to rebuilt.
122
How is rapid urbanisation leading to a decrease in the quality of life? What is the biggest issue associated with it?
- leads to challenges with sanitation, clean water, energy, lack of infrastructure – health issues, informal economies, lack of human rights
- informal economy -> long term impacts such as tax hole, economic growth limited ->less money for financing affecting the whole community and social wellbeing. In lagos 42% of business is informal showing the scale of the issue. Human rights issues (long hours, dangerous conditions) and associated with decrease in quality of life. HARD TO TACKLE
- however, challenges with sanitation, water, waste are also important – unsafe, hazardous, lack of schools, hospitals - unemployment, crime
123
What are the issues with food for the populations? (volume, affordability, nutritional value, sustainability)
Contributing factors:
- many areas lack accessibility to healthy affordable food
- caused by lack of choice, quality, accessibility of food – people who work longer want convinient food, less motivation to cook if older/disabled, takeaways cluster around schools, young parents have lower food security on av.
- if it’s imported it’s more expensive – no food is grown in London
Impacts:
- food banks have soared in every UK region over the last 5 years (doubles in North west, high in London)
- Obesity – 23% children obese in year 6 in London (2019-20), in Barkingam and Dagenham it was 29%
124
What are the concentrated source consumption? (deep ecological footprint – measure of amount of bioproductive land and sea required to support a person’s lifestyle)
Contributing factors:
- personal spending, business and government contributes to the footprint
- occurs because humans demand more resources than they can offer
- more people are densely packed in London increasing demand
Impacts:
- impacts are exported and diluted elsewhere (carbon footprint felt elsewhere in the world)
- country overshoot day shows how this overconsumption would cause inevitable issues
- Challenge because people are using more resources than on offer
125
What are the issues with segregation and housing
Contributing factors:
- house prices in London are higher than anywhere else
- distinct areas or low and high quality housing separates the rich from the poor
- houses aren’t built as fast
- house prices and rent is higher than anywhere else in the country
Impacts:
- segregation partly created by stark difference between poor quality rented accom and expensive luxury homes.
- little housing puts pressure on the gov.- affects tax payers (extra cost), increased traffic (pollution), health issues (commute to work), environmental issues (displacement of habitats and land), impact on social lives (cause isolation)
126
What are the issues with transport (London – traffic, congestion, sustainability, air pollution, affordibility)?
Contributing factors:
- too many cars, vehicles - traffic
- occurs when too much CO2 is being emitted – pollution
- roads not equipt to handle so many people - old infrastructure
- in 2016 the av. NO2 levels in London were 44.6, compared to New York’s 17.6
- construction emits 35% emissions, road transport 26%
- urban expansion means more commuters and cars
Impacts:
- reduces quality of life, productivity, health
- London is one of the the most impacted cities by traffic congestion, losing 148 hours a year to traffic
127
What are the issues with waste disposal (pollution, human and bin waste)
Contributing factors:
- only 41% of 7 million tonnes of waste in London’s homes and buisnesses are currently recycled
- landfill capacity set to run out by 2026
- In newham less than 17% of wate recycled
Impacts:
- landfills emit pollutants into the ground
- burning waste for energy contributes to air pollution
128
What are the issues with supplying energy for the city? (affordability, reliability, sustainability)
Contributing factors:
- 70% households have insufficient insulation (2016)
- energy efficiency is lowest in outer area of London such as Harrow, Bromley (zone 1, Kensington and Chelsea most)
- gas prices have soured
- increased urbanization increases demand for energy
Impacts:
- deaths occur due to fuel poverty and cold housing conditions
- Merton has 30-40% fuel poor households
- exaggerates socio economic inequalities
- 348,000 houses in London fuel poor – can’t keep houses warms due to income, cost
- London homes account for 32% of CO2 emissions
129
Suggest one reason for the variation in urban land values e.g. core vs outskirts
Land values increase towards the centre as there is more
competition for space (1) which means that shops and
services are having to pay more money in central locations
(1)
Central areas (red and yellow) tend to have high
accessibility in terms of public transport (1) which makes
them more appealing to both business and people who
might want to live in the central area (1).
The lowest footfalls will be in the peripheral (green)
zones but these will have lowest values (1) as they tend
to be less commercialised so shops will have less walk-
in customers (1).
130
Explain two factors that affect the global rate of urbanisation.
Some places have experienced high levels of rural urban
migration, e.g. China (1) because of the development of
new employment opportunities in growing cities (1)
In some cities governments have planned and paid for
better access to water and electricity supplies (1) which
attracts people from rural areas because of the higher
standard of living (1).
Transport routeways and nodes have improved global
supply chains (1) which, indirectly is a factor developing
manufacturing and triggering urbanisation (1).
Push factors from the countryside, e.g. a lack of
employment opportunity (1) have led to rural urban
migration is some countries, especially those with growing
urban employment opportunities as a result of
manufacturing growth (1)
131
give one pro and con for greenfield sites
Advantage: Greenfield sites are often flat and
uncontaminated (1) this makes it cheaper to develop
land for new house for instance compared to the clearing
cost of brownfield sites (1).
Disadvantage: Uses permeable land which, when
developed, increases surface run-off (1) which can
increase urban flood risk in an area (1).
132
chellaneges of urban environments in developed countries?
- transport, waste, pollution, emoployobility, housing crisis, segregation leading to wealth divide, transport, sanitation, traffic
133
State one group or organisation involved in managing urban challenges.
(Urban) planners (1)
Local government / local authority (1)
National government / politicians (1)
NGOs / charitable foundations (1)
Developers (1)
134
Explain two ways in which urban challenges have been managed.
Some places have provided grants to developers to build new
housing (1) which has allowed people to more from over-
crowded areas to newer and better-quality housing (1).
In some cities governments have planned and paid for better
access to water and electricity supplies (1) which reduces
pollution and allows people to do away with fires for cooking and
lighting (1).
Transport routeways and nodes can influence urban quality of
life so improving traffic speeds and flows is a solution (1) which
will likely go on to improve local air quality conditions (1).
London congestion charge (1) means that people are encouraged
to take public transport which reduces city pollution (1).
135
Analyse the reasons for the changes in the global urban population
Prices of land typically increase towards the city centre (1)
therefore only certain land-uses and activities can afford the
rents / spaces (1).
Historic reasons such as growth of urbans areas next to a river (1)
can means that the core CBD is in a particular / unusual location
(1).
Transport routeways and nodes can influence land-use patterns
(1) as these offer points of access which means that housing or
industry can develop next to points of accessibility (1).
136
why are global and mega cities distributed the way they are (8)
Historically cities such as New York, Paris and London have developed
because of trade links (especially the Colonialism influence) – the “Old
World”.
The complex pattern may be controlled by migration, both with
countries (especially SE Asia and rural urban migration) or between
countries – as set of push and pull factors operating.
Physical geography and access to trade and markets would have
controlled population growth and expansion especially in the last 200
years.
Political governance influences patterns of trade and growth and has
influence the pattern and distribution shown, e.g. growth of Chinese
megacities and the country has developed and opened its borders to
more trade.
The megacities of the wealthier countries in have much lower growth
rates or even declining populations in future, so this is a factor of more
recent urbanisation.
137
