Unit VIII - Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Flashcards
1
Q
What is motivation?
A
a need or desire that ENERGIZES and directs BEHAVIOR
2
Q
How is motivation pushed or pulled from us?
A
Our motivations arise from the INTERPLAY between NATURE (the bodily “push”) and NURTURE (the “pulls” from our personal experiences, thoughts, and culture).
Our MOTIVES drive our behavior.
3
Q
From which perspectives have psychologists viewed motivation?
A
Instinct theory
Drive reduction theory
Arousal theory
Hierarchy of needs
4
Q
What is an instinct?
A
a COMPLEX behavior that is rigidly PATTERNED throughout a species and is UNLEARNED
5
Q
What are examples of instincts?
A
IMPRINTING in birds
RETURN of salmon to BIRTHPLACE
Infants’ innate reflexes to root for a NIPPLE and SUCK
6
Q
What is instinct theory?
A
Instinct theory views our INSTINCTS as the source of our MOTIVATIONS.
Instinct theory states that the MOTIVATION to SURVIVE is the most IMPORTANT motivation and the innate behaviors that aid survival drive our motivations
7
Q
How do physiological needs create a drive?
A
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (such as for food or
water) create an AROUSED, MOTIVATED state—
a drive (such as hunger or thirst)—that pushes
us to behave in a way that reduces the need and
returns the body to HOMEOSTASIS
8
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
a tendency to maintain a BALANCED or CONSTANT
internal state; the REGULATION of any aspect of body CHEMISTRY, such as blood glucose, around a
PARTICULAR level
9
Q
What is drive-reduction theory?
A
the idea that a PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED creates
an AROUSED state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and restore the body to HOMEOSTASIS, or balance
10
Q
How does drive reduction theory explain how we regulate our body temperature?
A
Similar to THERMOSTAT
FEEDBACK LOOPS- sensors detect temperature, if too cold, blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth
DRIVEN to put on more clothes/ seek warmer environment
11
Q
How is behavior pulled by incentives?
A
we also are pulled by incentives— positive or negative environmental stimuli that lure or repel us.
12
Q
Can one behavior be both pushed and pulled?
A
When there is BOTH a biological need and an incentive, we feel STRONGLY driven.
The food-deprived person who smells pizza baking may feel a strong hunger drive, and the baking pizza may become a compelling incentive.
13
Q
Can curiosity be a motive?
A
Curiosity drives monkeys to try to figure out how to unlock a latch that opens nothing.
14
Q
What other behaviors might curiosity explain?
A
Curiosity DRIVES newly mobile infants to investigate every ACCESSIBLE corner of the house, and it drove students, in one experiment, to CLICK on pens to see whether they did or didn’t deliver an electric shock.
15
Q
How do humans seek optimal levels of arousal?
A
Having ALL our biological needs SATISFIED, we feel DRIVEN to experience STIMULATION
lack simulation- BORED/ try to INCREASE arousal
Too much stimulation- try to DECREASE arousal
16
Q
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
A
MODERATE arousal leads to OPTIMAL performance
17
Q
What is optimal arousal?
A
BETWEEN bored LOW arousal and anxious hyperarousal lies a FLOURISHING life.
18
Q
What is Abraham’s Maslow’s theory of motivation?
A
Abraham Maslow
theorized that human needs are HIERARCHICAL….some have PRIORITY over others
19
Q
What is a hierarchy of needs?
A
PHYSIOLOGICAL needs that must FIRST be satisfied before HIGHER level safety needs and then PSYCHOLOGICAL needs are ADDRESSED.
20
Q
What is self-transcendence?
A
people strive for MEANING, PURPOSE, and COMMUNION in a way that is TRANSPERSONAL—beyond the self.
21
Q
Is the order of Maslow’s hierarchy fixed?
A
The order of Maslow’s hierarchy is NOT UNIVERSALLY fixed.
Starvation - political statement
Self-esteem matters most in individualist nations, whose citizens tend to focus more on personal achievements than on family and community identity.
22
Q
What is the order of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
A
Physiological Safety Belongingness & love Esteem Self-actualization Self-transcendence
23
Q
Research on hunger
A
Ancel Keys perform SEMI-STARVATION experiment, halved food intake- men became listless & apathetic- body weight stabilized about 25% less than starting
24
Q
What were the psychological effects of being semi-starved?
A
men- food OBSESSED
TALKED food, DAYDREAMED food
Lost interest in SEX & SOCIAL activities
25
WWII survivor Louis Zamperini - drifted with two other members in Pacific Ocean for 47 days- to pass time, they ...
recited recipes
| recalled mothers' home cooking
26
How is hunger related to stomach contractions?
When hungry and felt hunger pang, stomach contractions occur
27
Can hunger exist without stomach contractions?
Without stomach contractions. hunger still persist
| Rat and humans without stomach still eat/ can be hungry
28
What is glucose?
the form of SUGAR
that circulates in the blood and
provides the MAJOR SOURCE OF
ENERGY for body tissues
29
How does blood glucose impact hunger?
Glucose level in blood DROPS will trigger HUNGER
APPETITE hormones released from HC, stomach, intestines, pancreas, and liver ALL signal brain to motivate.not motivate eating
30
What role does the hypothalamus play in hunger?
HC performs body MAINTENANCE
| Blood vessels supply HC, enabling it to RESPOND to current blood chemistry/ neural information
31
How does the arcuate nucleus impact hunger?
A SMALL structure in the BASE of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus plays a KEY role in the REGULATION of appetite and body weight.
32
What are the two portions of the hypothalamus that control appetite?
Lateral hypothalamus
| ventromedial hypothalamus
33
lateral hypothalamus (LH)
Stimulation of this structure in the hypothalamus STIMULATES hunger
without this, hunger signals are inhibited
34
ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
Stimulation of this structure in the hypothalamus INHIBITS hunger.
without this, full signals are inhbitited
35
What research has been conducted?
When the neural center which secretes APPETITE-SUPPRESSING hormones is electrically STIMULATED, animals will
STOP eating.
DESTROY area causes obesity and uncontrollable eating
36
What are five appetite hormones?
```
Insulin
leptin
PYY
ghrelin
orexin
```
37
insulin
decreases appetite
| hormone secreted by PANCREAS; controls blood GLUCOSE
38
leptin
decreases appetite
| protein hormone secreted by FAT CELLS; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
39
PYY
decreases appetite
DIGESTIVE TRACT hormone; sends “I’m not hungry”
signals to the brain
40
ghrelin
increases appetite
hormone secreted by empty STOMACH;
sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain
41
orexin
increases appetite
| a hunger-triggering hormone produced by the HYPOTHAMALUS
42
What is the set point?
```
the POINT (weight) at which your
“WEIGHT THERMOSTAT” may be SET (fixed)
```
43
What happens wen body fall below set weight?
Increased hunger
| Lowered metabolic rate
44
What oppositions are there to the idea of set point?
Some researchers DOUBT that our bodies have a preset tendency to maintain OPTIMUM weight
Slow, sustained changes in body weight- alter set point
45
Given unlimited access to a wide variety of tasty foods, people and other animals tend to _______ and ____ ______
overeat
| gain weight
46
Instead of set point, some researchers prefer term ///
settling point
47
Settlign point
level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure.
48
What is basal metabolic rate?
the RESTING rate of energy EXPENDITURE for maintaining BASIC body functions.
49
How was basal metabolic rate impacted in Keys’ semi-starvation experiment?
By end of 6 months, men stabilized at 3/4 normal weight by REDUCING energy expenditure due to drop in basal metabolic rate
50
If amnesia patients with no memories of events occurring a few minutes ago, were offered lunch, they would readily eat it. This suggests that part of knowing when to eat is...
memory of our last meal
51
How does culture influence hunger?
Japanese people enjoy natto, fermented soybean dish- super smelly
Asians repulsed be stinky cheese
Peruvians likes roasted guinea pig
Alaskans eat whale blubber
52
Is there a relationship between geography and food spices?
Countries with hot climates, in which food historically spoiled more quickly, feature recipes with more
bacteria-inhibiting spices.
53
How do situations control our eating behavior?
Some situations arouse our appetite more than others.
In one experiment, watching an intense action movie (rather than a non-arousing interview)
doubled snacking.
54
Do we eat more when we are around others?
Most people do.
After parties ppl have overeaten- presence of others tends to amplify our natural behavior tendencies
55
Does serving size matter?
Researchers studied the effects of portion size by offering people varieties of free snacks.
The consistent result:
offered a supersized portion, people put away more calories.
56
What does the research on serving size show?
People eat more with bigger plate
Children eat more with adult-sized plates
Bigger bowl- more ice cream
57
Have cooking shows influenced healthy eating?
Today dozens of cooking shows are broadcast to
millions of U.S. viewers daily. Yet FEWER Americans than ever are home cooking
their own, more healthful meals.
58
Does food variety stimulate eating?
Yes- people eat more at buffets
| Ancestors-variety was healthy- wide range of vitamins
59
How can we use behavior science to improve nutrition?
Obama, in 2015, used executive order to use behavioral science to better serve Americans
60
What has worked?
One research team quadrupled carrots
taken by offering schoolchildren carrots before they picked up other foods in a lunch line.
A new school lunch tray puts fruits and veggies up front, and spreads the main dish out in a shallow
compartment to make it look bigger.
61
What physical health risks are associated with obesity?
```
diabetes
high blood pressure
heart disease
gallstones
arthritis
certain types of cancer
increased depression
```
62
What do the statistics show?
Obesity rates worldwide are higher than ever.
| Since 1975, obesity rates have nearly tripled.
63
What is body mass index (BMI)?
measurement of your body FAT based on your WEIGHT in relation to your HEIGHT.
64
Why was storing fat adaptive?
Carried ancestors through famine
| Impoverished places find heavier bodies attractive
65
How do set point and metabolism contribute to obesity?
Fat requires less food intake to maintain that to gain
Weight below set point-> brain triggers hunger and metabolism
Body perceives STARVATION-> adapts by burning fewer calories
66
How does sleep loss make us more vulnerable to obesity?
Sleep deprivation increases the release of GHRELIN which stimulates the appetite and decreases the release of LEPTIN which reports body fat to the brain.
67
Is sex a need?
Sex is not like hunger, because it is not an actual NEED. Yet sex MOTIVATES.
A small number of human are ASEXUAL and have no sexual attraction to others.
68
How do sex hormones influence human development?
Prenatal period- sex hormones direct sex
Puberty- sex hormones ushers into adolescence
Adult- sex hormone influences sexual behavior
69
What are the two sex hormones?
testosterone
| estrogen
70
testosterone
Present in both sex
| Additional in male influences development in womb/ during puberty
71
estrogen
Contribute to female sex characteristics
Secreted in higher amount in females
Peak during OVULATION
72
How do hormones influence sexuality?
females- sexually receptive during peak estrogen
testosterone drops in females- waning sexual interest
Males with low testosterone levels- increase testosterone- more energy/sexual desires
73
How can hormonal surges impact sexual desire?
The surge of hormones that occurs during puberty TRIGGERS the DEVELOPMENT of sex characteristics and sexual interest.
74
Castration of prepubertal boys results in ....
sex characteristics and sexual desire
| do not develop normally
75
How can hormonal decline impact sexual desire?
Sex remains a part of life, but as hormone levels decline, sexual fantasies and intercourse
decline as well.
76
How can hormonal shifts impact sexual desire?
Surgery/drugs may cause hormonal shifts
Castration-> sex drive fell
Drugs reducing testosterone levels-> lost sexual urge
77
Because of our highly developed _____, sex hormones have ____ control over our behavior than they do over other animals’ behavior.
brain
| less
78
What about hormone replacement?
We might compare human sex hormones, especially testosterone, to the fuel in a car. Without fuel, a car will not run. But if the fuel level is MINIMALLY ADEQUATE, adding more WON’T CHANGE how the car runs.
79
What is the sexual response cycle?
the
FOUR stages of sexual responding
described by William Masters and
Virginia Johnson in 1966
80
What are the 4 phases?
excitment
plateau
orgasm
resolution
81
excitement
The genital areas become ENGORGED with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to SWELL. A woman’s vagina EXPANDS and secretes LUBRICANT; her breasts and nipples may ENLARGE.
82
plateau
Breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to INCREASE. The penis becomes fully engorged and some fluid may appear at its tip.
A woman’s vaginal secretion continues to INCREASE.
83
orgasm
Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. The pleasurable feeling of sexual release is much the same for both sexes.
84
resolution
The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels
release their accumulated blood. This happens relatively quickly if orgasm has occurred,
relatively slowly otherwise.
85
What is the refractory period?
period in which another orgasm is not possible
86
Men's refractory periods are ______ than women's,
longer
87
What are biological influences on sexuality?
sexual maturity
| sex hormones espeically testosterone
88
Psychological infleunces on sexuality
Exposure to stimulating conditions
| sexual fantasie
89
Social-cultural influences
Family & society values
Religious & personal values
Cultural expectations
Media
90
How do external stimuli influence sexual arousal?
People become aroused when interacting with erotic material
| Repeated exposure results in habituation
91
How important are psychological factors?
Compared with our motivation for eating, our sexual motivation
is LESS influenced by biological factors.
Psychological and social-cultural
factors play a BIGGER role.
92
Can exposure to sexually explicit material have adverse effects on women?
Yes
Depictions of sexual coercing/ enjoyment increased false belief that women wants to be overpowered/ hurting women/ committing rape
93
Can exposure to sexually explicit material have adverse effects on relationships?
Yes
Causes people to judge others as less attractive
Relationships to be less satisfying
94
Can exposure to sexually explicit material have adverse effects on men?
yes
| Desensitizes young men to normal sexuality, erectile problems, lowered sexual desire
95
Does imagination play a role in sexual arousal?
95% of people have sex fantasies
Men tend to have more frequent physical and less romantic fantasies
some men prefer faster paced sexual content
96
How does commitment enhance contentment?
In one national study that followed participants to age 30, later first sex predicted GREATER satisfaction
in one’s marriage or partnership.
97
How does building a relationship enhance sexual satisfaction?
Those whose relationship first developed to a deep commitment, such as marriage, not only reported greater relationship satisfaction and stability but also
better sex.
98
What is an affiliation need?
the need to BUILD
relationships and to feel part of a GROUP
the need to BELONG
99
What evidence supports affiliation as a survival tool?
Social bonds BOOSTED our early ancestors’
chances of SURVIVAL/ survive, reproduce, co-nurture offspring
Attachment motivated caregivers to keep children close
100
Can belonging boost health?
Having a social IDENTITY—feeling part of a group—
| BOOSTS people’s health and well-being
101
What does the research show?
Having someone rejoices with us feel better about both news and friendship
Stranger's causal thank you warm hearts
Close friends can literally make us feel warm
102
The peak moment of enjoyment had satisfied self-esteem and relatedness-_________ needs
belonging
103
How do we create ‘us’?
Bonds at school, band, sports
Parting -> DISTRESS - promise to call, write
Sharp circle around us- attachment to "us" and hostilities to "they"
104
What does the research on isolation show?
Risk for mental decline
Older adults-> more doctor visits/ lonely- greater risk for dementia
Bereaved-> empty life- overeating
105
What is ostracism?
deliberate social
| exclusion of individuals or groups
106
Ostracism example Henry Flipper
ostracized by white cadets at US Military Academy
| became first black West Point grad
107
Experiment-> some students told they would end up alone or didn't belong in a group
Those students became more likely to engage in self-defeating behaviors/ act in aggressive ways against those who has excluded them
108
Checking your phone is a way to ...
feel connected to others even if there has been no text messages
109
How have we changed how we connect?
Social networking sites
Typical US teen with phone sends 30 texts a day
68% uses Internet
110
How does social networking influence us?
By connecting LIKE-MINDED people, the Internet serves as a social AMPLIFIER.
In times of social crisis or personal stress, it provides INFORMATION and SUPPORTIVE connections.
It enables people to SHARE their experiences and compare their lives with others, though it can be depressing when one garners few likes or has lots of bragging friends.
111
How has being online changed us?
those who spend hours online are LESS likely to know and draw help from their real-world neighbors.
112
Does electronic communication stimulate healthy self-disclosure?
Less focused on Others' reaction
Less self-conscious/ less inhibited
Increased self-disclosure serves to deepens friendships
113
What is narcissism?
a personality trait in which people feel SELF-IMPORTANT, SELF-FOCUSED, AND SELF-PROMOTING
"I like to be the center of attention"
114
How does social media support narcissism?
People with high narcissism test scores are especially active on social networking sites
Collecting SUPERFICIAL "friends"/ staged, GLAMOROUS photos, retaliate more against NEGATIVE comments
115
What are some of the negative outcomes of social media use?
Lower grades
| Increased anxiety & depression
116
What is achievement motivation?
a desire for SIGNIFICANT
accomplishment, for MASTERY of
skills or ideas, for CONTROL, and for
attaining a HIGH standard
117
How does achievement motivation influence the lives of smart children as they progressed through life?
Motivational difference between least and most successful
118
Malcolm MacLeod and Raasay road
Built a road to the northen part of the island by land taking ten years
119
What is grit?
passion and
perseverance in the pursuit of
long-term goals
Combied with self-control, gritty goal-striving produce great achievements
120
Which matters more, intelligence or discipline (grit)?
In some studies of both secondary school and university students, self-discipline (grit) has surpassed intelligence test scores in predicting school performance, attendance, and graduation
honors.
121
What are some research-based strategies for realizing our goals?
```
MAKE resolution
ANNOUNCE goal
DEVELOP plan
CREATE short term rewards
MONITOR progress
CREATE supportive env't
TRANSFORM hard-to-do behaviors into habits
```
122
How does outlook on life impact stress and health?
POSITIVE expectations often motivate EVENTUAL success.
| Ways of thinking impact stress levels and health
123
How does optimism impact our health?
Pessimists expect things to go badly.
When bad things happen, pessimists
knew it all along.
124
How does pessimism impact our health?
Optimists expect to have more control,
| to cope better with stressful events, and to enjoy better health.
125
Studies on optimism nurses and nuns
Nurses scoring in top quarter on optimism are less likely to die than those in the bottom quarter
Nuns expressed happiness lived on average longer than sad counterparts
126
How does social support impact stress and health?
Social support—feeling liked and encouraged by intimate friends and family—PROMOTES
both happiness and health.
127
What does research show about the importance of social support?
Less likely to die early if supported by close relationships
Social isolation’s association
with risk of death is equivalent to SMOKING.
Close relationships predicted happiness and health in all cultures
128
How does social support calm us and reduce blood pressure?
In a study, women holding husband's hand showed less activity in threat-responsive areas and had below average stress hormone levels
129
How does social support foster stronger immune functioning?
In one study, healthy volunteers inhaled nasal drops laden with a cold virus and were quarantined and
observed for 5 days.
Age, race, sex, and health habits being equal, those with close social ties were least likely to catch a cold.
130
How can pets provide social support?
Having a pet may increase the odds of survival after a heart attack, relieve depression among people with AIDS, and lower blood pressure and other coronary risk factors.
131
How can we reduce stress?
```
Optimistic thinking
Social support
Sense of personal control
May need to MANAGE stress
Aerobic exercise
Relaxation
Meditation
Spiritual communities
```
132
How can talking about a stressful event calm us?
In one study, 33 Holocaust
survivors spent two hours recalling their experiences, many in intimate detail never before disclosed.
In the weeks following, most watched a video of their
recollections and showed it to family and friends.
Those who were most self-disclosing had the most improved health 14 months later.
133
Does writing about personal traumas help reduce stress?
In an analysis of 633 trauma victims, writing therapy was as effective as psychotherapy in reducing psychological trauma.
In another experiment, volunteers who wrote trauma diaries had fewer health problems during the ensuing 4 to 6 months.
134
What is aerobic exercise?
SUSTAINED exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps ALLEVIATE depression and anxiety
135
How effective is aerobic exercise as a way to manage stress and improve well-being?
Estimates vary, but aerobic exercise such as jogging, swimming or biking, adds to your quantity of life—about seven hours longer life for every exercise hour.
More energy, better mmodd, stronger relationships
136
What does the research show about the benefits of aerobic exercise?
Less heart attacks
cleaning arteries of fat
Better cognitive functioning
Reduced risk of diseases
137
What research has been conducted on aerobic exercise and depression?
An experiment assigning depressed female students to three groups, one aerobic exercise, two relaxation, third control
10 weeks later, the women in the aerobic
exercise program reported the greatest decrease in depression.
138
What is the overall impact of exercise?
Exercise INCREASES arousal, thus COUNTERACTING depression’s low arousal state
Muscle RELAXATION
Sounder sleep
Boost mood
139
Does exercise lead to new neural growth?
Exercise also FOSTERS neurogenesis
| In mice, exercise causes brain to produce new stress resistant neurons
140
In what ways might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?
More than 60 studies have found that relaxation procedures can also help ALLEVIATE headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia.
141
What research has been conducted?
Friedman Roseann, colleagues tested relaxation by assigning men to two groups: one standard instructions, second modified lifestyles
142
What were the results of Freidman and Rosenman’s study?
During the next 3 years, those who learned to modify their lifestyle had half as many repeat heart attacks as did the first group.
143
What is mindfulness meditation
a reflective practice in which people
attend to current experiences in
a nonjudgmental and accepting
manner
144
What are the benefits of mindfulness?
Lessen anxiety & depression
Improved sleep, relationships, immune system
Improve concentration & decision making
145
What is happening in the brain when we practice mindfulness?
STRENGTHENS connections among brain regions
ACTIVATES brain regions associated wit more reflective awareness
CALMS brain activation in emotional situations
146
What is the faith factor?
Religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active, a
curious correlation called the faith factor
147
What research has been conducted on the faith factor?
One study compared the death rates for 3900 people living in two Israeli communities; first religious, second not religious
Over 16 year period, belonging to religious collective-> strong protective effect/ less chance to die
148
What is the research on longevity predictors?
Controlling for age and education, the researchers found that not smoking, regular exercise, and religious attendance all predicted a lowered risk of death in any given year.
Women attending weekly religious services, for example, were only 54 percent as likely
to die in a typical study year as were non attenders.
149
What are some predictors of longer life?
Not smoking
Regular exercise
Regular religious attendance
150
Why might religious involvement predict longevity?
Researchers point to HEALTHY BEHAVIORS, SOCIAL SUPPORT AND POSITIVE EMOTIONS as three possible explanations for the religiosity-longevity correlation
151
What is so great about happiness?
Perceive world as safer
More confident & decisive
Cooperate more easily
Live healthier/ more energized lives
152
What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?
In study after study, a mood-boosting experience such as recalling a happy event has made people MORE LIKELY to give money, pick up someone’s dropped papers, volunteer time, and do other good deeds.
153
Can doing good promote good feelings?
Spending money on others causes happiness
Younger children show more positive emotion when they give gifts
Kidney donor leaves donors feeling good
154
What is positive psychology?
scientific study of human FLOURISHING, with the goals of discovering and promoting STRENGTHS and VIRTUES that help individuals and communities to
thrive.
155
What is subjective well-being?
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction
| with life
156
What is objective well-being?
physical & economic indicators to evaluate people's quality of life
157
What is positive psychology’s first pillar?
SATISFACTION with the past, HAPPINESS with the present, and OPTIMISM about the future define the positive psychology movement’s first pillar: POSITIVE WELL-BEING
158
What is positive psychology’s second pillar?
the second pillar, POSITIVE CHARACTER, focuses on exploring and enhancing creativity, courage,
compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality.
159
What is positive psychology’s third pillar?
The third pillar, POSITIVE GROUPS, COMMUNITIES, AND CULTURES, seeks to foster a positive social
ecology.
160
What research has been conducted on happy days?
Social psychologist Adam Kramer did a naturalistic observation of emotion words on Facebook by tracking frequency of positive and negative emotion words
161
The results?
The days with the most positive moods? Friday and Saturday. Similar analyses of questionnaire responses and 59 million Twitter messages found Friday to Sunday the week’s happiest days
162
What is the research on income and happiness?
Entering college students report being financially successful is important
Money does buy happiness up to a point
power of more money to increase happiness is strongest at low incomes
163
Does money buy happiness
It surely helps us to avoid certain types of pain. Yet, though average buying power has almost tripled since the 1950s, Americans’
reported happiness has remained
almost unchanged
164
How is happiness relative?
Happiness is relative to our own experience and happiness is relative to others’ success.
165
What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?
our tendency to form judgments
(of sounds, of lights, of income)
relative to a neutral level defined
by our prior experience
166
So, does more money make us happier?
At a high enough level, it levels off
Feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, success and failure are judgments we make based partly
on expectations formed by our recent experience.
167
What is relative deprivation?
perception that one is worse off
relative to those with whom one
compares oneself
168
How does relative deprivation relate to income and happiness?
For example, satisfaction stems less from our
income, than from our INCOME RANK.
Better to someday make $50,000 when others make $25,000 than to make $100,000 when friends, neighbors, and co-workers make $200,000
169
Happy people are…
```
high in self-esteem
optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
involved in close, positive, and lasting relationships
physically attractive
skilfull at work and leisure
active in a religious faith
regular exercisers
good sleepers
```
170
What are evidence-based suggestions for a happier life?
Take control of time
Act happy
Seek work and leisure that engage your skills
Buy shared experiences rather than things
Exercise
171
What are steps to happiness?
```
Sleep enough
Give priority to close relationships
Focus beyond self
Count your blessings/ record your gratitude
Nurture your spiritual self
```
172
What is emotion?
a response of the whole organism, involving physiological AROUSAL,
EXPRESSIVE behaviors, and
CONSCIOUS experience
173
How do the three pieces fit together?
Historical emotion theories, as well as current research, have sought to answer
Does your bodily arousal come before or after your emotional feelings?
How do thinking (cognition) and feeling interact? Does cognition always come before emotion
174
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
the theory that our EXPERIENCE of emotion is
our AWARENESS of our physiological
responses to an EMOTION-AROUSING stimulus:
stimulus leads to arousal which leads to emotion
175
We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble
James-Lange theory of emotion example
176
How did Walter Cannon disagree with the James-Lange theory of emotion?
“Does a racing heart signal fear or anger or love?”
The body’s responses—heart rate, perspiration,
and body temperature—are too similar, and they change too slowly, to cause the different emotions
177
What is the Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotion?
```
the theory that an emotion-arousing
stimulus SIMULTANEOUSLY triggers
(1) physiological responses and
(2) the subjective experience of
emotion
```
178
What is the thalamus?
at the top of the brain stem, is the brain’s sensory control center.
179
How does the Cannon-Bard thalamic theory explain emotion?
suggests that stimulation/arousal and emotion are a combined response to a stimulus
stimulus -> thalamus -> amygdala and brain cortex
180
How are the amygdala and the sympathetic nervous system involved in emotion?
amygdala- responsible for instantaneous emotional response
cerebral cortex-directs response
sympathetic NS- signals to muscles to tense/ fight or flight
181
How do the two theories differ?
JL- physiological response occur first/ cause motion
| CB- physical & emotional response occur simultaneously & independently
182
How do thinking and feeling interact?
The James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard theory both take into account physiological responses and the interplay with emotion.
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer demonstrated that how we appraise (interpret) our experiences also matters.
183
What is the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor theory of emotion?
Physical reaction & thoughts together create emotion
Emotions are comprised of PHYSICAL arousal & COGNITIVE appraisal
Emotional experience requires a CONSCIOUS interpretation of arousal
184
What is the spillover effect?
Arousal spills over from one event to the next.
185
Spillover effect example soccer match
arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other
violent confrontations.
186
How did Schachter and Singer research the spillover effect?
Injected college men with epinephrine causing arousal, first group told shot had no affect, second group were told truth
Subjects went to waiting room with accomplice
187
What were the results?
Subjects in first groups caught emotion of accomplice while second group felt little emotions
If accomplice = euphoric then subjects-> happy
If accomplice irritated then accomplice -> testy
188
So, does cognition matter?
This discovery—that a stirred-up state can be experienced as one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label it—has been replicated in dozens of experiments and continues to influence modern emotion research.
189
Does cognition have to precede emotion? Robert Zajonc
Psychologist Robert Zajonc contended that we actually have MANY emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our
CONSCIOUS interpretation of a situation
190
What are the brain’s pathways for emotion?
Sensory input -> cortex via thalamus for ANALYSIS-> amygdala-> response
or directly to amygdala via thalamus for INSTANT EMOTIONAL reaction
191
What is the “high road”?
COMPLEXemotions- hatred & love
travel via THALAMUS to CORTEX - analysis & labeling
Sent to AMYGDALA then sent out response
192
What is the “low road”?
SIMPLE emotions-likes, dislike, & fears
BYPASS CORTEX
sensory input-> thalamus -> amygdala
193
How do the Schachter-Singer and Zajonc-LeDoux theories of emotion compare?
SS- APPRAISAL & LABELING of events also determine emotional responses
ZL- Some emotional responses are IMMEDIATE before any conscious appraisal
194
How did Richard Lazarus contribute to the discussion of emotion?
Lazarus conceded brain processes VAST amounts of information WITHOUT our conscious awareness, some emotional responses DO NOT require conscious thinking.
195
What did Lazarus conclude?
EFFORTLESS & UNCONSCIOUS APPRAISAL is still MENTAL function
Brain must have SOME idea of stimulus
emotions ARISE when we appraise an event as HARMLESS or DANGEROUS.
196
Cognitive appraisal example- bushes
we appraise the sound of the rustling bushes as the presence of a threat.
Later, we realize that it was “just the wind
197
What are the basic emotions?
Most scientists agreed that ANGER, FEAR, DISGUST, SADNESS, and HAPPINESS are basic emotions
10 basic emotions MOST present in INFANCY
PRIDE & LOVE- also basic?
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How are emotions and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) related?
ANS controls AROUSING & CALMING during times of stress by ACTIVATING SYMPATHETIC/ PARASYMPATHETIC divisions
199
How does the sympathetic division of the ANS activate the body in a crisis?
SNS -> ADRENAL glands ->ADRENALINE and NORADRENALINE/ Liver-> extra SUGAR/ RESPIRATION, PERSPIRATION, HEART RATE, BLOOD PRESSURE INCREASE/ DIGESTION SLOWS/ PUPIL DILATE/ BLOOD clor more QUICKLY
200
How does the parasympathetic division of the ANS calm the body in a crisis?
PNS-> stress HORMONES LEAVE bllodstream/ RESPIRATION, HEART RATE, BLOOD PRESSURE DECREASE/ PUPILS CONSTRICT/ SALIVATION, DIGESTION ACTIVATE
201
Can one brain region be responsible for different emotions?
YES
INSULA- neural center deep inside brain- activated during NEGATIVE SOCIAL emotions (disgust, lust, pride)
activated when biting into disgusting food, biting cockroach
202
Do different emotions trigger different brain circuits?
Watching FEARFUL faces- more amygdala activity than watching ANGRY faces
More RIGHT frontal lobe activity- depression-prone/ negative
More LEFT frontal lobe- positive
203
How effective are polygraphs in using body states to detect lies?
If these polygraph experts had been the judges, more than one-third of the innocent would have been declared guilty, and nearly one-fourth of the guilty would have gone free.
204
Polygraphs measure
emotion-linked autonomic arousal, as reflected in changed breathing,
heart rate, and perspiration
205
What does the research show?
The CIA and other U.S. agencies have spent millions of dollars testing tens of thousands of employees.
Yet the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
has reported that “no spy has ever been caught [by] using the polygraph.”
206
How do we communicate nonverbally?
Westerners- firm handshake-> outgoing/ expressive
Glance-> intimacy/ darting eyes-> anxiety
Two people passionately in love-> spend time gazing into each other's eyes
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Nonverbal Hindu classic dance
uses the FACE and
| BODY to effectively convey 10 DIFFERENT emotions
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Can humans detect nonverbal threats?
We readily sense SUBLIMINALLY presented
NEGATIVE words, such as snake or bomb.
A SINGLE angry face will “POP OUT” of a crowd.
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How can experience sensitize us to particular emotions?
In experiments using a series of faces that morph
from anger to fear, PHYSICALLY ABUSED children are much
QUICKER than other children to spot the signals of ANGER.
210
How does experience influence our perception of emotion?
Shown a face that is 50 percent fear and 50 percent anger, ABUSED children are more likely to perceive ANGER than fear.
Abused childrens’ perceptions
become sensitively ATTUNED to GLIMMERS of danger that non-abused children miss
211
How readily can we detect deceit?
DIFFICULT to discern deceit.
The behavioral differences between liars and truth tellers are too MINUTE for MOST people to
detect
People were about 54 percent accurate in discerning truth from lies
212
What is a Duchenne smile?
RAISED cheeks and ACTIVATED muscles
| under the eyes suggest a NATURAL smile
213
How is modern texting impacted by absence of emotion?
AMBIGUOUS emotion
EMBED visual cues to show emotion
without vocal NUANCES, we can't tell whether a person is serious or kidding
214
egocentrism
Failing to perceive how others interpret our jokes
215
Does emotion give a clue to gender?
Researchers manipulated a GENDER-NEUTRAL face.
| People were more likely to see it as MALE when it wore an ANGRY expression and FEMALE when it wore a SMILE.
216
What research has been conducted on gender and emotion?
Researchers Kring and Gordon asked male and female students to watch 3 different film clips - happy, sad, scary
Then watched facial expressions of men & women
217
What were the results?
No differences in self-reported emotions/physiological response
Women's faces SHOWED much more emotion
218
Does the meaning of gestures vary across cultures?
YES
| Nixon made North American "A-OK" sign which is crude insult to BRAZILIANS
219
Do facial expressions have different meanings in different cultures?
Two investigative teams showed photographs of various facial expressions to people in different parts of the world and asked them to guess the emotion.
A smile is UNIVERSALLY recognized as a smile while other emotions are less so
220
Is interpreting facial expressions an adaptive trait?
Darwin argued that in prehistoric times, before our
ancestors communicated in words, they communicated threats, greetings, and submission with FACIAL EXPRESSIONS.
Their SHARED expressions helped them SURVIVE
221
How does context help us interpret emotion?
Tears on the woman’s face make her expression SEEM sadder.
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How does culture impact the amount of emotional expression?
INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures- display VISIBLE emotions
COLLECTIVIST cultures- LESS visible emotional displays
MOUTH- more expressive in North Americans
EYES- more expressive than eyes
223
Do all cultures express the same degree of emotion?
Compared with their counterparts in China, where calmness is emphasized, European-American leaders
follow different DISPLAY RULES—they express excited smiles SIX times more frequently in their official photos.
224
Kazuo & Hideko Mori Research
Attached rubber bands to sides of face with bandages and ran over head to lift facial muscles/ under chin to constrict facial muscles
225
What were the results of this research?
CONFIRMED the facial feedback effect
Most students reported feeling more HAPPY than sad when their cheeks were raised UPWARD.
Most students reported feeling more SAD than happy when their cheeks were pulled DOWNWARD
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facial feedback effect
tendency of FACIAL MUSCLE states to trigger CORRESPONDING feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
227
How do facial expressions influence our feelings?
A HEARTY smile ENHANCES positive feelings even MORE when you are reacting to something PLEASANT or funny.
When SMILING, people more quickly understand sentences that describe PLEASANT events.
228
What is the behavior feedback effect?
the tendency of BEHAVIOR to INFLUENCE
our OWN and OTHERS’ thoughts,
feelings, and actions
229
Behavior feedback effect example- walking
Walking in short, shuffled steps with downcast eyes- sadness
| Walking in long strides, arm swinging, eyes ahead- happiness
230
How can I make use of the behavior feedback effect and facial feedback effect in my life?
You can use your understanding of feedback effects to become more EMPHATIC: let your own face MIMIC another person’s expression. acting as another acts HELPS us feel what another FEELS.
231
What is stress?
```
the process by which we
PERCEIVE and RESPOND to certain
events, called STRESSORS, that
we appraise as THREATENING or
CHALLENGING
```
232
What is a stressor?
an challenging or threatening event that triggers stress
233
What is a stress reaction
Physical and emotional responses to the stressor; how stress manifests
234
What happened to Ben Carpenter and a truck?
Pushed by semi-truck onto highway travelling at extreme high speeds
235
Ben Carpenter's stressor
terrifying truck ride that Ben took
236
Carpenter's stress reaction
Ben's physical and emotional responses
237
Carpenter's stress
Process by which Ben related to threat
238
How does appraisal of an event affect our stress reaction?
Lazarus: stress arises LESS from events themselves than from how we APPRAISE (perceive or explain) them
New job-> welcoming challenging to one person and risking failures to another
239
What is stress appraisal?
The events of our lives flow through a PSYCHOLOGICAL filter.
How we appraise an event influences how MUCH stress we
experience and how EFFECTIVELY we respond.
240
What are the two different stress appraisal on a tough math test?
Threat- this is beyond me
| Challenge- I have to apply what I know
241
How can short-lived or challenging stress have positive outcomes?
A MOMENTARY stress can MOBILIZE the immune system for fending off infections and healing wounds.
Championship athletes, successful entertainers,
motivated students, and great teachers and leaders all thrive and excel when AROUSED by a CHALLENGE.
Experiencing some stress EARLY in life builds RESILIENCE
242
How can extreme or prolonged stress harm us?
```
Stress can trigger RISKY decisions and
UNHEALTHY behaviors.
Pregnant women with OVERACTIVE stress systems tend to have SHORTER pregnancies, which pose health RISKS for their infants
When facing stress, people may
SMOKE or DRINK.
```
243
What are three main categories of stress?
Catastrophes
Significant life changes
Daily hassles
244
catastrophes
UNPREDICTABLE LARGE-SCALE events
DAMAGE to emotional
and physical health can be SIGNIFICANT
245
catastrophes examples
earthquake, wildfires, storms, floods
246
How do catastrophes impact physical and emotional health?
| Katrina 9/11 2011 Norway terrorism
In the four months AFTER Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans’ suicide rate reportedly TRIPLED
weeks after the
9/11 terrorist attacks, 58 percent of Americans said they were experiencing GREATER-THAN-AVERAGE arousal and anxiety
UPTICK in health issues, from heart problems to suicides, immediately followed the 2011 terrorist attacks in Norway.
247
significant life changes
Many happen during young CHILDHOOD
often KEENLY felt
HAPPY events-> may also be STRESSFUL
248
significant life changes examples
```
death of loved one
friend move away
Divorce
Graduation
leaving home
```
249
How does age impact stress?
A Gallup-Healthways survey of more than 650,000 Americans during 2008 and 2009 found daily stress HIGHEST among YOUNGER adults.
250
daily hassles
Every day we wake up to ALARMS that were not set, TEACHERS that require more from us, FRIENDS that are in bad moods and CARS that won’t start.
ANYTHING IMPEDING you from PROGRESS
251
daily hassles examples
dead cell phones
aggravating siblings
public speech
math problems
252
What is an example of how stress is studied?
| public speech experiment
Saliva collected at start -> initial levels of cortisol
Give simulated job interview speech to panel
Asked to complete math problems out loud
Measure cortisol gain at end ->40% increase
Debrief and thanks for participation
253
How do we respond and adapt to stress?
Alerted by brain-> sympathetic NS -> fight or flight
increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls feelings of pain, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores
254
How do the adrenal glands work to affect stress responses?
Cerebral cortex -> outer part of adrenal glands -> glucocorticoid stress hormones
255
What is the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
Selye proposed that the body’s ADAPTIVE response to stress is so GENERAL that, like a single
burglar alarm, it SOUNDS, no matter what intrudes
256
What are the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
Alarm
Resistance
Exhaustion
257
What is alarm?
SNS suddenly ACTIVATED
Heart rate increases/ blood DIVERTED to skeletal muscles/ FAINTNESS or SHOCK may occur
RESOURCES MOBILIZED
flight or fight/ freeze
258
What is resistance?
Temp., BP, and respiration remain HIGH/ adrenal lands pump HORMONES/ RESOURCES summon to meet CHALLENGE/ no relief from stress, body's reserves begin to DWINDLE
259
What is exhaustion?
the body becomes more VULNERABLE to
| illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and DEATH.
260
What are other ways humans respond to stress?
WITHDRAW- common after being faced with death
| PARALYSIS with FEAR- natural disasters
261
What is the tend-and-befriend response?
Common among WOMEN- give and receive SUPPORT
262
Common stress response in men
Turn to alcoholism, emotionally insensitive, withdraw socially
263
Common stress response in women
nurturing and banding together
264
health psychology
a SUBFIELD of psychology that provides
| psychology’s contribution to BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE
265
psychoneuroimmunology
the STUDY of how PSYCHOLOGICAL, NEURAL, AND ENDOCRINE processes together affect the IMMUNE system and resulting HEALTH
266
How is stress and illness studied
To study how stress—and healthy and unhealthy behaviors—influence health and illness -->
interdisciplinary field of BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE
integrating behavioral and medical knowledge.
267
How does the stress response of immune system work?
immune system -> complex surveillance system
| MAINTAIN health by ISOLATING & DESTROYING bacteria, viruses, other invaders
268
the stress response- immune system cells
4 types are active in searching/ destroying invaders
| B & T LYMPHOCYTES/ MACROPHAGES/ NATURAL KILLER CELLS
269
How does stress increase vulnerability to disease?
Surgical WOUNDS heal more SLOWLY in stressed people.
Stressed people are MORE vulnerable to COLDS.
Stress can HASTEN the course of DISEASE.
270
What does the research show?
When researchers dropped a cold virus into people’s noses, 47 percent of those living STRESS-FILLED lives developed COLDS.
271
Dental students with punch wounds experiment
Compared with wounds placed during summer vacation, those placed three days before a major exam healed 40 percent more slowly
272
Does stress cause cancer?
Stress does NOT create cancer cells.
But in a healthy, functioning immune system, lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells search out and destroy cancer cells and cancer-damaged
cells.
273
Cancer in rodents experiment
Gave either tumor cells or carcinogens to rodents
Exposed some rodents to uncontrollable stress, weakening immune system
Stressed rodents developed cancer more often, experienced tumor growth sooner, grew larger tumors
274
Why are some of us more prone to coronary heart disease than others?
About 610,000 Americans die annually from
heart disease.
(CDC, 2016a)
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE and a FAMILY HISTORY of the disease increase the risk.
So do SMOKING, OBESITY, an UNHEALTHY DIET, PHYSICAL INACTIVITY, AND A HIGH CHOLESTEROL LEVEL.
275
How does stress impact coronary heart disease?
Stress and personality play a BIG role in
heart disease.
The MORE psychological TRAUMA people experience, the more their bodies generate INFLAMMATION, which is associated with heart and other health problems, including depression
276
What studies have been conducted about stress and heart diseased?
Meyer Friedman, Ray Rosenman tested this idea by measuring blood cholesterol level of US male tax accountants at different time of year
277
What were the results?
Jan.- March-> normal levels
April 15 filing deadline-> dangerous levels
May-June-> back to normal
278
What follow up research was conducted by Freidman and Rosenman?
Type A ot Type B
Friedman and Rosenman launched a longitudinal study of more than 3000 healthy men, aged 35 to 59.
The researchers interviewed each man for 15 minutes, noting his work and eating habits, manner of talking, and other behavior patterns.
After the interviews, the subjects were classified as having either Type A or Type B personalities.
279
What characterizes a Type A personality?
most REACTIVE, competitive, HARD-DRIVING, IMPATIENT, time-conscious, super-motivated, verbally AGGRESSIVE, and easily ANGERED
280
What characterizes a Type B personality?
More EASYGOING and RELAXED
281
What were the findings of the longitudinal study?
Nine years later, 257 men had suffered heart attacks, and 69 percent of them were TYPE A.
Moreover, not ONE of the “pure” TYPE B’s—the most mellow and laid-back of their group—had suffered a heart attack
282
Why are Type A personalities more prone to coronary heart disease?
Type A’s toxic core is NEGATIVE emotions—especially the ANGER associated with an AGGRESSIVELY REACTIVE temperament
283
What physiological changes occur when angry?
SNS REDISTRIBUTES blood flow to muscles
Pulling away from internal organs
Liver can't removes CHOLESTEROL and FAT
excess cholesterol and fat DEPOSIT around heart
284
Hostility correlated with other risk factors such as ...
Smoking, drinking, and obesity
285
Does mood impact coronary heart disease?
A Harvard School of Public Health research team found pessimistic men at DOUBLED risk
of developing coronary heart disease over a
10-year period
286
What is catharsis?
EMOTION release achieved through AGGRESSIVE action/ fantasy- WESTERN cultures
287
Does catharsis work to reduce anger?
USUALLY FAILS- BREED more ANGER
FURTHER retaliation-> ESCALATION
EXPRESSING anger -> MAGNIFY anger
288
What are ways to defuse anger?
WAIT
Find HEALTHY DISTRACTION/SUPPORT
DISTANCE yourself
289
wait
Reduce the level of physiological arousal of anger by waiting.
290
find a healthy distraction or support
Calm yourself by exercising, playing an instrument, or talking it through with a friend.
291
distance yourself
Try to move away from the situation mentally, as if you are watching
it unfold from a distance
292
Does stress cause illness?
Stress may not DIRECTLY CAUSE illness, but it does make us more VULNERABLE, by influencing our behaviors and our physiology.
