Unit II - Research Methods Flashcards
What are science based answers?
Repetition of statements makes them easier to remember… and more…TRUE seeming.
Research helps us overturn popular ideas.
Just because we’ve heard something many times, it doesn’t mean it is true.
What is the hindsight bias?
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it
Give an example of hindsight bias
“We knew it all along”
Outcome determines the bias
What is overconfidence?
The tendency to think we know more than we do
Give an example of overconfidence
British expert group claiming to never need the telephone
Computers will forever stay heavy
What is perceived order in random events
Random sequences don’t look random
In our natural eagerness to make sense of an unpredictable world, we are prone to perceive patterns.
Give an example of perceived order in random events
Rolling a dice
Flipping a coin
What are the three roadblocks to critical thinking?
Hindsight bias
Overconfidence
Perceiving patterns in random events
Why use the scientific method?
Used to support scientific attitude
Self-correcting process using observation and analysis
to evaluate ideas
What is a theory?
an explanation using
an integrated set of principles
that organizes observations and
predicts behaviors or events
If we observe over and over that a classmate who gets plenty of sleep is usually the one with the right answer…
Then a theory based on this observation is
Sleep must improve memory
What is a hypothesis?
Testable prediction often implied by a theory
To test our theory of sleep’s effects on memory,
The hypothesis would be…
when sleep deprived, people will
remember less from the day before.
Theory vs hypothesis
Theory uses our observation to explain behavior while hypothesis uses predictions about behavior that can be tested
“Rat is always right”
Research
The results of our experiment will
either support our theory or
lead us to revise or reject it.
What is an operational definition?
A carefully worded statement of
the exact procedures (operations)
used in a research study.
Create an operational definition for “human intelligence”
Human intelligence is the score a person achieve on an IQ test
After creating an operational definition, …
The variable would then need to be quantified
Why is an operational definition important?
REPLICATION
is CONFIRMATION
How can we test hypotheses and refine theories?
CDE
Descriptive method
Correlational method
Experimental method
What are three descriptive methods?
CNS
Case studies
Naturalistic observation
Surveys & interviews
What is a case study?
A descriptive technique in which one individual
or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Give examples of case studies.
One individual
Patient H.M.
Little Hans
Genie (the feral child)
One group
University of Tennessee women’s basketball team
Prison inmates in a group therapy study
What are strengths of case study?
Allow for examination of rare or unusual behavior.
Provide a large amount of qualitative data.
Suggest directions
for further study.
What are weaknesses of case studies?
Atypical case studies can be misleading.
Results from one study may not be generalizable to the larger group.
Cannot determine cause and effect.
What is a naturalistic observation?
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
Give examples of naturalistic observation.
Watching chimpanzees in the jungle
Tracking conversations in college students
Counting positive and negative words in Twitter messages
What are the strengths of naturalistic observations?
Subjects behave “normally” outside of a lab setting.
Data collection is unobtrusive (doesn’t disturb the subject).
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observations?
Independent variable cannot be isolated.
Cannot determine cause and effect.
Observations by researchers may be subjective.
What is a survey?
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Give an example of survey.
68% of all humans say that religion is important in their daily lives.
1 in 5 people across 22 countries report believing that alien beings have come to Earth and now walk among us disguised as humans.
What are strengths of the survey method?
able to take a “quick pulse” of people’s beliefs, behaviors or opinions
able to include many cases
What are the weaknesses of the survey method?
response bias
wording effects can skew the outcomes
acquiring a random sample is difficult
cannot determine cause and effect
How does wording effects impact targeted audience?
“Do you support aid to the needy?”
vs
“Do you support welfare?”
first statement more favored
Sampling bias occur when…
The sample surveyed is not representative of the population based on location and demographics
What is a population?
All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn
What is a random sample?
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
What is a correlation between two things?
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other.
Give examples of correlations.
Smoking and lung cancer
GPA and study skills
What is a positive correlation?
Two sets of data tend to rise or fall together
r = .01 to +1.0
One variable increases as the other variable also increases
What is a negative correlation?
One set of data rises while the other falls
r = -.01 to -1.0.
One variable increases as the other variable decreases or vice versa
Give an example of positive correlation.
College graduation and income levels
Give an example of negative correlation.
Age and amount of nightly sleep
How do we measure correlations?
correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two variables.
What is a scatterplot?
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
What is important to remember about correlation coefficients?
A correlation coefficient, which can range
from -1.0 to +1.0
reveals the extent to which two things relate.
The closer the score gets to +1 or -1, the
stronger the correlation.
What are illusory correlations?
Perceiving a relationship where none exists.
Or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
What is regression to the mean?
The tendency for extreme scores or events to fall back toward the average.
Give an example of illusory correlations.
A sports fan wears a blue jersey the day her team wins and she decides to wear that blue jersey on game days from now on although the jersey had no impact on the score.
Give an example of regression to the mean.
A student scores much lower than normal on an exam. On future exams, the student’s scores return to their average.
How do correlations help us to predict events?
Self esteem correlates negatively with and therefore predict depression. Lower the self esteem the greater risk for depression.
Correlation does not imply or prove causation.
Although mental illness correlates with smoking, one variable does not implies or prove the other.
How can experiments establish cause and effect?
Researchers are able to isolate the effects of one or more factors by manipulating the factors of interest and holding constant other factors
What is an example of an experiment that shows cause and effect?
Does breast feeding lead to smarter children?
What is the experimental group?
Those who receive the treatment
What is the control group?
Those who do not receive the treatment
What is random assignment?
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Why does random assignment help establish cause and effect?
In order to control confounding variables, experimenters randomly assign subjects to the experimental
and
control group.
What is random sampling?
Choosing a representative sample of the population being studied.
Allows the results to be generalized to the population as a whole
What is random assignment?
Assigning the participants to the experimental or control group by chance.
Minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
What is a single blind experiment?
The participants in the study are uninformed about the treatment, if any, they are receiving.
Controls for subject response bias and placebo effect.
What is a double blind experiment?
The participants and the researcher are uninformed about which group receives the treatment and which does not.
Controls for experimenter and subject bias as well as placebo effect.
What is a placebo?
an inert treatment…like a pill without any medication inside.
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect causes experimental results simply from expectations or assumptions that medication is being taken.
Give an example of placebo effect.
Athletes have run faster when given a supposed performance-enhancing drug.
(McClung & Collins, 2007)
What is an independent variable?
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Only given to experimental group
What is a dependent variable?
In an experiment, the
outcome that is measured; the variable that may
change when the independent variable is manipulated.
Measured in both group
What is a confounding variable?
A factor
other than the factor being studied
that might influence a study’s results
A variable cannot be confounding if it occurs
to the same degree in both groups.
How to prevent confounding variables
Random assignment
Give examples of confounding variables.
Age IQ Ethnicity Sex Political beliefs
What is experimental validity?
The extent to which a
test or experiment measures or
predicts what it is supposed to.
Give an example of experimental validity.
if you take a driving test and pass it, we should expect to see accurate driving skills from you.
The driving test would be considered a valid measure of your ability to drive.
How to decide which research design to use
HDVR
Generate a testable hypothesis
Consider the best research design
Measure the variables
Interpret the results
How can simplified laboratory conditions illuminate every day life?
specific findings
theoretical principles
Why do psychologists study animals?
FTS
Fascinating to study
Teach us about humans
Simpler systems
What ethical guidelines safeguard animal research subjects?
Reasonable housing conditions Socialization Humane and healthy care Minimal discomfort Screen research proposals Inspected labs
How have animals benefited from animal research?
Enrich animal environments
Reducing “learned helplessness” of captivity
Giving animals more choices
What ethical guidelines safeguard human research participants?
(CIDPW)
Informed consent Protection from harm Debriefing Right to withdraw Confidential
What is consent?
Willingness to participate in an experiment
What is informed consent?
Willingness to participate in an experiment after being informed of possible harm
What is debriefing necessary?
Deception- some experiments have true purposes that can’t be exposed
Participants debriefed at end of experiment about true purpose
How does values affect psychology?
Psychologists’ values influence their choice of research topics, their theories, observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice.
Applications of psychology’s principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity.
Why do we need statistics?
Tools that allow researchers to measure variables/interpret results
STATISTICAL LITERACY
What is descriptive statistics?
Numerical data used to measure/describe characteristics of groups
Mean, median, mode, range, SD
What is the mean?
The mathematical average of a set of numbers. Add the scores and divide by the number (N) of scores.
What is the median?
The middle score in a distribution. Arrange scores from highest to lowest with half of the data above and half below this number.
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring data point in a distribution.
Why is mean not always the best descriptor of data?
Outliers can skew the data making it deceptive
What is a skewed distribution?
Most of the data fall on one side with few data point on the other
How does an outlier skew a distribution?
When one data point is extremely different from the others, this is called an outlier and can skew the results.
Median is a better descriptor of data when…
mean is impacted by outliers
How is the range used as a measure of variation?
Knowing the variation of data helps use predict future events
What is the range?
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
What is the standard deviation?
Computed measure of how much data vary around the mean score
How is the standard deviation used as a measure of variation?
Shows whether scores are packed together or dispersed
How to calculate standard deviation
Calculate the mean
For each data point: subtract the mean and square the result.
Calculate the mean of all the squared differences.
Take the square root of the sum.
What is a normal distribution?
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
What are characteristics of normal distribution?
68-95-99 Rule
~68% of scores fall 1 standard deviation from the mean
~95% of scores fall 2 standard deviations from the mean
~99% of scores fall 3 standard deviations from the mean
What are inferential statistics?
Numerical data that allow one to generalize—
to infer from sample data the
probability of something being
true of a population.
When can results be generalized to the population at large?
RLS
Representative sample
Low variability
More cases with similar results
What does statistical significance mean?
How likely it is that a result occurred by chance
Reported as a p value
less than 0.05 means that it is 95% likely the results did not occur by chance
