Unit VII - Cognition Flashcards
How is memory defined?
the persistence of learning over time through the
ENCODING, STORAGE, and RETRIEVAL of
information
Research on memory’s extremes has helped us understand how memory works.
Some disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, slowly STRIP AWAY memory.
At the other extreme are people who
would WIN gold medals in a MEMORY Olympics.
Alzheimer’s disease
a progressive NEURODEGENERATION and fatal condition
memory degeneration
Alzheimer’s begins with difficulty with remembering new info/ progress into inability to do everyday tasks
LOST of MEMORY, SPEECH COMPLEX
Solomon Shereshevskii
could repeat up to 70 digits, if they were read about 3 seconds apart in an otherwise silent room.
He could recall digits or words backward as
easily as forward.
How is memory measured?
recall
recognition
relearning
Recall
retrieving information that is NOT currently in your CONSCIOUS awareness but that was learned at an EARLIER time
Recognition
IDENTIFYING items PREVIOUSLY learned
Relearning
Learning something more QUICKLY when you learn it a SECOND time
Recall testing
fill-in-the blank short answer, or essay prompt
Recognition testing
Multiple choice/matching
Relearning testing
Studying for a final exam
Recall in life events
Telling friend about time you won goldfish at the carnival
Recognition in life events
Seeing brand of cereal and recognizing it from commercial
Relearning in life events
traveling to Costa Rica and using Spanish learned in tenth grade
How did Hermann Ebbinghaus test speed of relearning?
Ebbinghaus
randomly selected a sample of syllables, practiced them, and tested himself on his ability to accurately recall the items
After learning, able to recall some syllables- not forgotten
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus’ findings
the MORE times he practiced a list of
nonsense syllables on Day 1, the LESS time he required to relearn
it on Day 2
SPEED of relearning is one measure of memory retention
How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
INFORMATION-PROCESSING model which likens human memory to COMPUTER operations
Encode
put in new information
Store
organize information
Retrieve
pull out information
What is parallel processing?
considering MANY aspects of a problem
SIMULTANEOUSLY ; brain’s NATURAL
mode of information processing
What did early models of memory formation look like?
Atkinson & Shiffrin- THREE STAGE model of memory
Sensory memory
IMMEDIATE, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-term memory
memory that holds a few items
BRIEFLY before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-term memory
relatively PERMANENT and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
How have early models been modified?
New ways long term memories form
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING- info getting stored in long term without our notice
Short term= WORKING MEMORY
What is working memory?
newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, ACTIVE processing of incoming AUDITORY and VISUAL information, and of information retrieved from
LONG-TERM memory
How does Baddeley’s model address working memory?
Includes visual-spatial and auditory rehearsal of new information
Hypothetical CENTRAL EXECUTIVE focus attention/pull from long term to MAKE SENSE of new info
What is the role of the central executive?
KEY to new model
COORDINATES focused processing without which, information often FADES
explicit memory
declarative memory
retention of FACTS and EXPERIENCES from LONG-TERM MEMORY that one can consciously KNOW and “declare”
implicit memory
nondeclarative memory
retention of LEARNED SKILLS or classically conditioned ASSOCIATIONS in long-term memory INDEPENDENT of conscious recollection
explicit vs implicit memory
1- effortful processing
2- automatic processing
Effortful processing
encoding
that requires ATTENTION and
conscious EFFORT
Automatic processing
UNCONSCIOUS encoding of
INCIDENTAL information
Automatic processing examples
space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such
as word meanings.
How do we process automatically space?
Can you REMEMBER the page or side of the book certain charts, graphs or material is located?
How do we process automatically time?
Have you ever RETRACED your steps through the sequence of your day to find a lost item?
How do we process automatically frequency?
Can you recall how MANY TIMES today you have run into a good friend?
What was George Sperling’s sensory memory experiment?
Sperling- 1960- flashed group of letters for 1/20th second- ppl recall about half the letters
ppl signaled to recall particular row- near perfect accuracy
What is iconic memory?
FLEETING sensory memory of visual stimuli
our eyes REGISTER a picture-image memory of a scene, and
we can recall ANY part of it in amazing detail.
What is echoic memory?
IMPECCABLE, though
fleeting, sensory memory for AUDITORY stimuli
tend to LINGER for 3 or 4 seconds
Echoic memory example
Teacher ask you to repeat last few words
How are short-term and working memory related?
related idea of WORKING MEMORY also includes our ACTIVE processing, as our brain makes sense of incoming information and LINKS it with stored memories.
What is our short-term memory capacity?
Miller proposed between 5 and 9 pieces of information in STM
VARIES by TASK
How fast do short-term memories disappear?
Peterson & Peterson asked subjects to remember three-consonant
WITHOUT rehearsal, after 3 seconds, people recalled the letters only about HALF the time; after 12 seconds, they SELDOM recalled them at all.
What is our working memory capacity?
VARIES, depending on age and other factors.
YOUNG ADULTS have a GREATER working memory capacity.
What is the benefit of a large working memory capacity?
AID information RETENTION after SLEEPING and creative problem SOLVING.
What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us encode and retrieve?
Chunking
Mnemonics
Hierarchies
Strategies can make DIFFERENCE between success and failure.
What is chunking?
ORGANIZING items into familiar, MANAGEABLE units
16 items- too many- divide into 5 meaningful chunks
What is a mnemonic device?
memory aids, especially those
techniques that use vivid IMAGERY
and ORGANIZATIONAL devices, like
ACRONYMS or ACROSTICS
We more easily remember ________,
____________words (like bicycle or book)
than we do _______words (like peace or love).
concrete
visualizable
abstract
What is the peg-word system
MNEMONIC device that utilizes visual IMAGERY and this simple JINGLE
How does the peg-word system work?
Next visually ASSOCIATE the PEG-WORDS with to-be-remembered ITEMS
Associate thes peg-words with other words such as from grocery lists
How do hierarchies aid retrieval?
When we organize words or concepts into HIERARCHICAL groups, we remember them BETTER than when we see them presented RANDOMLY
How can the spacing effect impact memory retrieval?
DISTRIBUTED study or practice to yield BETTER long-term RETENTION
those who LEARN quickly also FORGET quickly
How can the testing effect impact memory retrieval?
REPEATED self-testing
TESTING improve learning & memory
What is the best strategy for learning?
Happily, “retrieval practice (or testing) is a powerful
and general strategy for learning.”
What are two levels of processing?
Shallow Processing
Deep Processing
Shallow Processing
encoding
on a BASIC level, based on the STRUCTURE or APPEARANCE of words
Deep Processing
encoding
SEMANTICALLY, based on the
MEANING of the words; tends to yield the BEST retention
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving’s work on processing levels showed the deeper, _______ processing triggered by the third question yielded ______ recall than did the ________ processing elicited by the second or first question.
Semantic
Better
Shallower
Why should I make material meaningful?
The time you spend THINKING about material you are reading and RELATING it to PREVIOUSLY stored material is about the most USEFUL thing you can do in learning any new subject matter
What is the self-reference effect?
Most people EXCEL at remembering PERSONALLY relevant information
ESPECIALLY strong in members of individualist Western cultures.
What is the capacity of long-term memory?
ESSENTIALLY LIMITLESS
storage
capacity as “in the same ballpark as the
WORLD WIDE WEB.”
Where is long-term memory stored?
Psychologist Karl Lashley (1950) trained rats to find way out of maze/surgically removed PIECES of their brain’s cortex and RETESTED their memory.
Rats ALWAYS retained PARTIAL memory
Memories are _____-based, but the brain distributes the components of a memory across a _______ of locations.
brain
network
Explicit memories are either ________ (facts and general knowledge)
such as George Washington was our first president
or ________ (experienced events)
such as I had a clown at my 6th birthday party.
semantic
episodic
semantic memory
RECALLING a password and HOLDING it in working memory would ACTIVATE the LEFT frontal lobe.
episodic memory
CALLING up a VISUAL party scene would more likely ACTIVATE the RIGHT frontal lobe.
Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the
___________
and fed to other brain regions for _______.
hippocampus
storage
Hippocampus
SUBCORTICAL limbic system structure in the TEMPORAL lobes
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory processing?
HIPPOCAMPUS can be likened to a “SAVE” button for explicit memories.
ACTIVITY in HC and nearby brain networks as people form EXPLICIT memories
What does the research show about the subregions of the hippocampus?
Sub-regions for SOCIAL information, MEMORY , SPATIAL awareness
What is memory consolidation?
not PERMANENTLY stored in the hippocampus- simply organize info like LOADING DOCK
memories shifted and STORED elsewhere
How does sleep aid memory consolidation?
HC processes memories for LATER retrieval
Brain REPLAY day’s experiences as it TRANSFERS them to cortex
When our ________ is distributed over days rather than crammed into a single day, we experience more _____-induced memory _____________.
learning
sleep
consolidation
how are implicit memories processed?
HC & frontal lobes NOT sites
CEREBELLUM- key role in forming & storing IMPLICIT memories by classical conditioning
cerebellum
“LITTLE BRAIN” at the rear of the brainstem
Process SENSORY input, MOVEMENT, BALANCE, nonverbal learning & memory
What role do the basal ganglia play in memory formation?
facilitate formation of our PROCEDURAL memories (implicit)
for SKILLS.
RECEIVE input from CORTEX/ does NOT send info back to cortex
What role does the cerebellum play in memory processing?
DAMAGED cerebellum -ppl can’t develop CONDITIONED reflexes and ASSOCIATING a tone with an impending puff of air
What is infantile amnesia?
As adults, our CONSCIOUS memory of our first four years is largely BLANK
Events occurring in this age range GRADUALLY fade as we age
What are two influences that contribute to infantile amnesia?
1- INDEX much of EXPLICIT memory with language that children don’t have
2- HC is NOT mature in small children- LESS info gets retained
amygdala
two
LIMA-BEAN-SIZED neural clusters
in the limbic system; linked to
EMOTION
What role does the amygdala play in memory processing?
Stress hormones FOCUS memory.
Stress provokes the amygdala to INITIATE a memory trace that BOOSTS activity in the brain’s memory- forming areas.
How do emotions affect our memory processing
Produce TUNNEL vision memory
FOCUS attention/ RECALL on high priority info
What is a flashbulb memory?
clear, SUSTAINED long-term memory of an EMOTIONALLY significant moment or event.
flashbulb memory examples
9/11
1986 Challenger explosion
Kennedy assassination
How does serotonin release at the synapse impact memory processing?
When learning occurs, the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter SEROTONIN into certain neurons.
These cells’ synapses then become more EFFICIENT at transmitting signals.
EXPERIENCE and learning can increase—even DOUBLE—the number of synapses, even in slugs.
How does Kandel’s research impact human memory processes?
In experiments with people, rapidly STIMULATING certain memory-circuit connections has INCREASED their SENSITIVITY for hours or even weeks to come.
The sending neuron now needs LESS prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and MORE
connections exist between neurons.
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
an INCREASE in a cell’s
FIRING potential after brief, rapid
STIMULATION; a neural basis for
LEARNING and memory
How does LTP impact receptor sites?
After LTP, receptor sites have DOUBLED
What research confirms LTP as a physical basis for memory?
Drugs that BLOCK LTP INTERFERE with learning.
Drugs that MIMIC what happens during learning INCREASE LTP.
How do cues help with memory retrieval?
ENCODING memory of target piece of info, you ASSOCIATE other bits of info
these bits serve as RETRIEVAL CUES- more CUES- BETTER chance to find memory
What are the best retrieval cues?
associations we form at the time we encode a memory—SMELLS, TASTES, & SIGHTS
What is priming?
ACTIVATION, often
UNCONSCIOUSLY, of particular
ASSOCIATIONS in long-term implicit memory
perceptual set
a tendency to perceive or notice SOME aspects of the available sensory data and IGNORE others
priming
the IMPLICIT memory effect in which exposure to a STIMULUS influences response to a LATER stimulus
How does priming work?
After seeing or hearing the word rabbit, we are later MORE likely to spell the spoken word hair/hare as
H-A-R-E, even if we don’t recall SEEING or hearing rabbit.
What is an example of priming?
If, walking down a hallway, you see a poster of a missing child, you may then UNCONSCIOUSLY be primed to interpret an AMBIGUOUS adult-child interaction
as a possible KIDNAPPING.
What is context-dependent memory?
Putting yourself back in the context where you EARLIER experienced something can PRIME your memory retrieval
Context-dependeent memory
Visiting CHILDHOOD home or neighborhood causes OLD memories to surface
How does context enable recall?
When scuba divers listened to a word list in TWO different settings (either 10 feet underwater or sitting on the beach), they RECALLED more words if tested in the SAME place
What is the encoding specificity principle?
the idea that cues and
contexts SPECIFIC to a PARTICULAR
memory will be MOST effective in
helping us recall it
What is state-dependent memory?
What we learn in one PHYSIOLOGICAL state may be MORE easily recalled when we are again in that state
What is mood-congruent memory?
the
tendency to recall experiences that
are CONSISTENT with one’s CURRENT
good or bad EMOTIONAL state
How does mood-congruency impact the duration of our moods?
Mood effects on RETRIEVAL help explain
why our moods PERSIST.
Happy- happy events- happy place- prolong
Depressed- sad events- sad place- prolong
DEPRESSION- vicious, dark cycle
What is the serial position effect?
our tendency to recall BEST the LAST
(recency effect) and FIRST (primacy effect)
items in a list
What does research show about the serial position effect?
In experiments, when people viewed a list of items (words, names, dates, even experienced odors) and immediately tried to recall them in any order, they fell prey to the
serial position effect.
Why does the serial position effect influence memory retrieval?
Recency effect most effective when subjects are not distracted- ECHOIC info of LAST item
Primary effect most effective wen attention is diverted- ENHANCED rehearsal of FIRST item
William James on forgetting…
“If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as
ill off as if we remembered nothing.”
The woman who can’t forget.
Jill Price remembers EVERY DAY of her life since age 14 with DETAILED clarity, including both the joys and the hurts.
Jill possesses a very detailed episodic
long-term memory
Who was H.M.?
Henry Molaison- had much of HC removed due to seizures- as a result, UNABLE to form new conscious memories
How is H.M.’s brain still being studied
Brain preserved at UC San Diego’s Brain Observatory
What are two types of forgetting?
anterograde amnesia
retrograde amnesia
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form NEW memories due to injury or illness
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s PAST due to injury or illness
When do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at ANY memory stage – encoding, storage or retrieval.
When we process
information, we filter, alter, or lose MUCH of it.
Why do we forget?
1 - Encoding failure
2 - Storage decay
3 - Retrieval failure
What is encoding failure?
much of what we sense we NEVER notice, and what we fail to encode, we will NEVER remember.
What is storage decay?
After learning lists of nonsense syllables,
Ebbinghaus studied how much he retained up to 30 days later.
He found that memory for novel information FADES quickly, then
LEVELS out.
What research has been conducted on the forgetting curve?
Henry Bahrick- found similar forgetting curve for Spanish vocab learned at school
Ppl three years out of school had FORGOTTEN much of Spanish compared to those completing a SPANISH course
What is retrieval failure?
Often, forgetting is not memories faded but memories UNRETRIEVED. We store in long-term memory what’s important to us or what we’ve REHEARSED. But sometimes important events DEFY our attempts to access them.
What are two factors that influence memory retrieval errors?
proactive interference
retroactive interference
proactive interference
the FORWARD-ACTING disruptive effect of OLDER learning on the recall of NEW information
retroactive interference
the BACKWARD-ACTING disruptive effect of NEWER learning on the recall of OLD information
proactive interference example
If you buy a new combination lock, your well-rehearsed old combination may interfere with your retrieval of the new one.
retroactive interference example
If someone sings new lyrics to the tune of an old song, you may have trouble remembering the original words.
What does the research show?
Information presented in the hour before sleep suffers LESS retroactive
interference because the opportunity for
interfering events is MINIMIZED
What is motivated forgetting?
Sigmund Freud suggested that people may forget UNWANTED memories, either consciously or unconsciously
Researchers told some participants (but not others) about the benefits of frequent toothbrushing.
Those individuals informed about the benefits of toothbrushing then ________ (more than others did) having frequently brushed their teeth in the preceding two weeks
recalled
What is repression?
basic DEFENSE mechanism that BANISHES from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Margaret McKinnon would disagree.
McKinnon, interviewed 15 passengers who nearly died in a plane crash & found that all exhibited vivid, detailed memories.
With trauma comes not repression, but, far
more often, “ROBUST” memory.
What is reconsolidation?
a process in which PREVIOUSLY stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially ALTERED before being stored AGAIN
What is the misinformation effect?
occurs when MISLEADING information has DISTORTED one’s memory of an event
When exposed to SUBTLE misleading info, people may MISREMEMBER
How did Elizabeth Loftus test the misinformation effect?
Two groups of people watched a film clip of a traffic accident and then answered questions
about what they had seen.
How did leading questions influence recall?
Those asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” gave higher speed estimates than those asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
How did misinformation effect impact participants response later?
One week later, when
asked whether they recalled seeing any broken glass, people who had heard smashed
were more than 2x as likely to report seeing glass fragments.
In fact, the clip showed
no broken glass.
How does imagination impact memory?
Repeatedly IMAGINING nonexistent actions and events can create FALSE memories.
visualization & perceiving activates similar brain areas- more vivid imagination, more likely to form memory
How can digitally altered photographs produce imagination inflation?
When Slate magazine readers
in 2012 were shown a DOCTORED photo of U.S. President Barack Obama and Iranian President
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad SHAKING hands, 26 percent recalled the event—despite it
NEVER having happened
What is source amnesia?
FAULTY memory for how, when, or where information was LEARNED or imagined
Tend to effect EXPLICIT memories
What are some examples of source amnesia?
We may recognize someone but have no idea where we have seen the person.
We may tell a friend some gossip, only
to learn we got the news from that friend.
How does “Mr. Science” help us understand source amnesia?
Preschoolers interacted with “Mr. Science,”- activities such as blowing up a balloon with baking soda and vinegar.
Three months later, on three successive days, parents read them story describing some things the children had experienced with Mr. Science and
some they had not.
What were the results?
New interviewer asked what Mr. Science had done with them — 4 in 10 children spontaneously recalled him doing things that had happened only in the story. They recalled a FALSE memory.
What is déjà vu?
that EERIE sense that “I’ve experienced this BEFORE” Cues from the CURRENT situation may UNCONSCIOUSLY trigger retrieval of an EARLIER experience
So how can we tell true memories from constructed memories?
It is HARD to separate false memories
from real ones.
False memories can be PERSISTENT and
feel like real ones.
We more easily remember the GIST than the
events themselves.
Why have reports of repressed and recovered memories been so hotly debated?
DEBATE on whether early childhood abuse are REPRESSED/ can be RECOVERED during therapy
Organization seek to find COMMON ground
So, can memories of child abuse be reconstructed as well?
Sometimes, a well-meaning therapist, the misinformation effect and rehearsal of incorrect information can lead to false accusations of child abuse.
What are three arguments against repression of child abuse memories?
Psychologists QUESTION whether repression EVER occurs.
TRAUMATIC experiences typically lead to VIVID, persistent, haunting memories.
High probability recovered memories are FALSE
What do psychologists agree on?
sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting HAPPENS
recovered memories are COMMON
“recovered” memories under HYPNOSIS are UNRELIABLE
memories, real or false can be emotionally UPSETTING
memories before 4 are UNRELIABLE
What research has been conducted on children’s recall?
Stephen Ceci and Maggie Bruck’s studies of children’s memories have made them aware of how easily children’s memories can be MOLDED.
Asking three year old to show where pediatrician on doll- 55 percent w/o genital examination pointed to genital
or anal area
How reliable is children’s recall?
In one analysis of eyewitness data from over 20,000 participants, children regularly identified INNOCENT
suspects as guilty.
How can you use memory research to do better in your courses and on the AP® Exam?
study REPEATEDLY, make material MEANINGFUL, activate RETRIEVAL cues, use MNEMONIC devices, MINIMIZE interference, sleep MORE, and TEST yourself to be sure you can retrieve, as well as recognize, material
What is cognition?
all the mental
activities associated with THINKING,
KNOWING, REMEMBERING, AND
COMMUNICATING
concepts
mental groupings of SIMILAR objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
Prototype example- chair
the basic four-legged, chair with a back
How do prototypes help form concepts?
Matching new items to a PROTOTYPE provides
a quick and EASY method for sorting items into categories (or concepts).
CONCEPTS help us UNDERSTAND the world
How do we categorize people?
we mentally SHIFT them toward our CATEGORY prototypes.
What research has been conducted?
Viewing faces with mixed features, people often identify it with a race in which the features are most prominent
What happens when events, people or items do not match our prototypes?
When behaviors don’t fit our DISCRIMINATION prototypes—of White against Black, male against female, young against old—we often FAIL to notice
prejudice.
When symptoms DON’T fit one of our disease prototypes, we are SLOW to perceive an illness.
What is creativity?
ability to produce NEW (novel) and
VALUABLE (useful) ideas.
convergent thinking
NARROWING
the available problem solutions to
determine the single BEST solution
divergent thinking
EXPANDING
the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that
expands in DIFFERENT directions
convergent thinking example
aptitude tests such as SAT- ability to provide a SINGLE correct answer.
divergent thinking example
Creativity tests (How many uses can you think of for a brick?) many DIFFERENT options and to think in NOVEL ways.
What are the five components of creativity according to Robert Sternberg?
Expertise Imaginative thinking skills Venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation Creative environment
What is a venturesome personality?
seeks NEW experiences,
tolerates AMBIGUITY and RISK, and PERSEVERES
in overcoming obstacles.
Princeton mathematician Andrew Wiles pondered about a math puzzle left by Fermat laboring in near isolation. This shows
a venturesome personality
What is imaginative thinking?
Cartoonists
often display creativity as they see things in new ways or make unusual
connections.
How to boost your creativity…
Develop your expertise
Allow time for incubation
Set aside time for mind to roam freely
Experience other cultures
What are two problem solving strategies?
algorithm
heuristic
algorithm
a METHODICAL, logical
rule or step-by-step procedure that GUARANTEES
solving a particular problem
heuristic
a SIMPLE thinking
strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems EFFICIENTLY; usually SPEEDIER but also more ERROR-PRONE
than an algorithm
algorithm example
When asked to open an unused locker in the school hallway, you try every combination in a specific order…0-0-0, 0-0-1, 0-0-2, etc. until you find the solution.
heuristic example
When asked to open an unused locker in the school hallway, you stop by the main office to see if the secretary has a list of combinations for each locker.
What is insight?
a SUDDEN realization of a
problem’s solution
an AHA moment
no prior sense of getting closer to a solution
What research has been conducted on insight?
Insights led to about half of solutions in a study of forming compound words with set words
What is happening in the brain?
Before the ‘aha!’ moment, the problem solvers’ frontal lobes (involved in focusing attention) were ACTIVE.
At the instant of discovery, there was a BURST of activity in the right TEMPORAL lobe, just above the ear
What research has been conducted on insight in non-human animals?
Kohler placed fruit and long stick outside chimp cage out of reach then giving chimp a short stick
After repeated failures, chimp used short stick to get long stick due to AHA moment
What are three obstacles to problem solving?
confirmation bias
fixation
mental set
What is confirmation bias?
a tendency to
SEARCH for information that supports
our PRECONCEPTIONS and to IGNORE or
distort CONTRADICTORY evidence
Why we look only for supporting evidence.
leads us to seek evidence FOR our ideas more EAGERLY than we seek evidence AGAINST them.
What is fixation?
the INABILITY to see a problem from a NEW
perspective
What is mental set?
our tendency to APPROACH a problem with the mind-set of what has worked for us PREVIOUSLY.
fixation example
forming 4 equilateral triangles with 6 matches
What is intuition?
an EFFORTLESS, IMMEDIATE, AUTOMATIC feeling or thought
What are two intuitive mental shortcuts?
representativeness heuristic
availability heuristic
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how WELL they seem to represent,
or match, particular PROTOTYPES;
may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their AVAILABILITY in memory;
if instances come readily to
mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such
events are COMMON
How can the representativeness heuristic lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination?
Arab descent boarded plane trigger representativeness heuristic kicked in- associating this person with “terrorist”
If people have a prototype—a stereotype—of delinquent Black teens, or terrorist Arabs, …
they may unconsciously use the representativeness heuristic when judging individuals.
Result is RACISM
How can the representativeness heuristic aid in problem solving?
young man wants to win affections of woman- observe she plays on basketball team/ wear Celtics jerseys / behavior- decides to buy NBA finals ticket and ask her to go
We often fear the wrong things…
In 2015 and again in 2016, feared Islamic
terrorists shot and killed fewer Americans than
did armed toddlers.
In the three months after 9/11, fear of ______ led more Americans to travel by ___, and some to die.
flying
car
We fear what our ancestral _______ has prepared us to fear
We fear what we cannot _______
We fear what is _________
ancestral
control
immediate
Why are people more afraid of sharks than heat disease?
Vivid image vs harder to perceive
Thanks to aviability heuristic, we fear what is most readily _________ in memory.
availability
How are our decisions and judgments affected by overconfidence?
Overconfidence is the tendency to
be MORE confident than correct—
to OVERESTIMATE the accuracy of our
beliefs and judgments.
Sometimes our decisions and judgments go
awry simply because we are more
confident than correct.
What is the planning fallacy?
overestimating our future leisure time and income
students may underestimate time needed for an assignment
Anticipating how much time we have next month, we accept invitations and borrowing money due to anticipation of money are examples of …
planning fallacy
What is belief perseverance?
CLINGING to one’s INITIAL conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been DISCREDITED
What research has been conducted on belief perseverance?
After studying two supposedly new research findings, one supporting and the other refuting the claim that the death penalty deters crime, each side was more impressed by the study supporting its own beliefs.
And each readily disputed the other study.
What is the takeaway from the research?
Showing the pro- and anti-capital-punishment
groups the same mixed evidence actually increased their disagreement.
Motivated reasoning
Using conclusions to assess evidence rather than using evidence to draw conclusions
What is framing?
the WAY an issue is
posed; how an issue is WORDED can
significantly affect decisions and
judgments
How does framing impact judgments and decisions?
framing can be a POWERFUL tool of PERSUASION
10% die vs 90% survive in surgery
How do smart thinkers use intuition?
Implicit knowledge that we’ve recorded in our brains but can’t fully explain, shows itself in the smart and quick judgments of experienced nurses, firefighters, art critics, and car mechanics.
Intuition allows us to go with gut- recognizing stranger danger
When faced with a difficult decision involving a lot of facts, we’re wise to gather all information. Even during sleep our brain…
can still be processing the information and unconsciously influencing our decision
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
TRANSMIT knowledge
ALLOW mind-to-ind communication
What are the structural components of language?
phoneme
morpheme
grammar
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound unit
nearly 869 phonemes
morpheme
smallest unit that carries meaning;
may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
combines two or more phonemes
grammar
system of rules that enables us to
communicate with and understand others
phoneme example bat & that
b - a - t
th- - a - t
Every word contains at least ___ morphemes
one
Morphemes example readers
read - action
er - one who reads
s - plural
What are the two components of grammer?
semantics
syntax
Semantics
selecting the correct word to convey the meaning you intend.
Syntax
putting the words into the correct order according to grammatical standards of your language
“Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.”
Proper syntax
poor semantics
How do we acquire language
Linguist Noam Chomsky has argued that language is nature’s gift—an unlearned human trait, separate from other parts of human cognition.
what is universal grammar?
Built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules- helped ancestors learn languages
Early language acquisition
Children’s language development moves from SIMPLICITY to COMPLEXITY. Infants start without
language
by 4 months can RECOGNIZE differences in speech sounds
How does receptive language develop?
Babies preferred to look at face matching specific sounds- recognizing differences marks beginning of development
babbling stage
Beginning around 4 MONTHS, the stage of
speech development in which an infant SPONTANEOUSLY utters various sounds (phonemes) is at first UNRELATED to the household language.
Productive language in babies
ability to produce word- mature after receptive language
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about AGE 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in SINGLE words
Uses syllable such as ma or da to COMMUNICATE meaning
two-word stage
At about 18 MONTHS, children’s learning of language EXPLODES from about a word per week to a word per day.
By their second birthday, most have entered the two-word stage.
Contains mostly nouns & verbs/follow syntax
telegraphic speech
The two-word stage PRODUCES sentences in which a child speaks like a TELEGRAM—“go car” —using mostly NOUNS and VERBS
after 24 months, a babies speech…
rapidly develop into complete sentences
What is the critical period of language development?
CHILDHOOD seems to represent a critical (or “sensitive”) period for MASTERING certain aspects of language
By AGE 7- those who have not been exposed to language- lose ability to MASTER any language
Can we learn a new language as adults?
Asian immigrants arrive before age 8 has similar understanding of English grammar as natives
Deafness and experience
EARLY EXPERIENCES- important to deaf children born to non-signing parents / TYPICALLY do not experience language during their early years. Natively deaf children who learn sign language after age 9 NEVER learn it as well as those who learned it early in life.
What is aphasia?
impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to
BROCA’S AREA (impairing speaking)
or to WERNICKE’S AREA (impairing understanding)
What brain areas are involved in language processing and speech?
Damage to BROCA’s AREA- person struggle to speak/ could sing songs/ comprehend speech
Damage to WERNICKE’s AREA- people unable to UNDERSTAND others/ could only speak MEANINGLESS sentences
Broca’s area
control language EXPRESSION—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the MUSCLE MOVEMENTS involved in
SPEECH
Wernicke’s area
a brain area involved in LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION and expression;
usually in the left temporal lobe
How are language and ideas related?
Linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf contended that “language itself shapes a [person’s] basic ideas.”
Language CONTROLS the way we THINK & INTERPRET world
Linguistic determinism
hypothesis by Benjamin Lee Whorf that Language CONTROLS the way we THINK & INTERPRET world
Linguistic determinism example Hop[i
no past tense in language SO couldn’t readily THINK about past
Limitations to Whorf’s hypothesis
Today’s psychologists believe that a strong form of Whorf’s linguistic determinism is too EXTREME.
We ALL think about things for which we have NO WORDS.
UNSYMBOLIZED thoughts exist
What is linguistic influence?
the WEAKER form of “linguistic relativity”—the idea that language AFFECTS thought (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language)
words influence our thinking example Papua New Guinea
Berinmo children have words for different shades of “yellow,” which might enable them to spot and recall
yellow variations more quickly.
Two different items that share the same color name, as the two “blues” do above, are harder to ___________ than two items with different names - “blue” and “green.”
distinguish
thought and language combine
The traffic runs BOTH ways
between thinking and language.
Thinking affects our language,
which affects our thought
Do we think in images?
Indeed, we OFTEN think in images. Artists think in images. So do composers, poets,
mathematicians, athletes, and scientists.
We often think in images when we use nondeclarative
(procedural) memory
Research on thinking in images
IMAGINING a physical experience activates some of the same neural networks that are active during the ACTUAL experience.
For someone who has LEARNED a skill even watching the activity will ACTIVATE the brain’s internal simulation of it.
How does imagination produce winners?
Experiment tracking U Tennessee women;’s basketball team over 35 games, free-throw accuracy increased after mental practice
How can visualization improve grades?
It’s better to spend your fantasy time planning how to reach your goal than to focus on your
desired destination.
