Unit VII - Cognition Flashcards
How is memory defined?
the persistence of learning over time through the
ENCODING, STORAGE, and RETRIEVAL of
information
Research on memory’s extremes has helped us understand how memory works.
Some disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, slowly STRIP AWAY memory.
At the other extreme are people who
would WIN gold medals in a MEMORY Olympics.
Alzheimer’s disease
a progressive NEURODEGENERATION and fatal condition
memory degeneration
Alzheimer’s begins with difficulty with remembering new info/ progress into inability to do everyday tasks
LOST of MEMORY, SPEECH COMPLEX
Solomon Shereshevskii
could repeat up to 70 digits, if they were read about 3 seconds apart in an otherwise silent room.
He could recall digits or words backward as
easily as forward.
How is memory measured?
recall
recognition
relearning
Recall
retrieving information that is NOT currently in your CONSCIOUS awareness but that was learned at an EARLIER time
Recognition
IDENTIFYING items PREVIOUSLY learned
Relearning
Learning something more QUICKLY when you learn it a SECOND time
Recall testing
fill-in-the blank short answer, or essay prompt
Recognition testing
Multiple choice/matching
Relearning testing
Studying for a final exam
Recall in life events
Telling friend about time you won goldfish at the carnival
Recognition in life events
Seeing brand of cereal and recognizing it from commercial
Relearning in life events
traveling to Costa Rica and using Spanish learned in tenth grade
How did Hermann Ebbinghaus test speed of relearning?
Ebbinghaus
randomly selected a sample of syllables, practiced them, and tested himself on his ability to accurately recall the items
After learning, able to recall some syllables- not forgotten
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus’ findings
the MORE times he practiced a list of
nonsense syllables on Day 1, the LESS time he required to relearn
it on Day 2
SPEED of relearning is one measure of memory retention
How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
INFORMATION-PROCESSING model which likens human memory to COMPUTER operations
Encode
put in new information
Store
organize information
Retrieve
pull out information
What is parallel processing?
considering MANY aspects of a problem
SIMULTANEOUSLY ; brain’s NATURAL
mode of information processing
What did early models of memory formation look like?
Atkinson & Shiffrin- THREE STAGE model of memory
Sensory memory
IMMEDIATE, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-term memory
memory that holds a few items
BRIEFLY before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-term memory
relatively PERMANENT and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
How have early models been modified?
New ways long term memories form
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING- info getting stored in long term without our notice
Short term= WORKING MEMORY
What is working memory?
newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, ACTIVE processing of incoming AUDITORY and VISUAL information, and of information retrieved from
LONG-TERM memory
How does Baddeley’s model address working memory?
Includes visual-spatial and auditory rehearsal of new information
Hypothetical CENTRAL EXECUTIVE focus attention/pull from long term to MAKE SENSE of new info
What is the role of the central executive?
KEY to new model
COORDINATES focused processing without which, information often FADES
explicit memory
declarative memory
retention of FACTS and EXPERIENCES from LONG-TERM MEMORY that one can consciously KNOW and “declare”
implicit memory
nondeclarative memory
retention of LEARNED SKILLS or classically conditioned ASSOCIATIONS in long-term memory INDEPENDENT of conscious recollection
explicit vs implicit memory
1- effortful processing
2- automatic processing
Effortful processing
encoding
that requires ATTENTION and
conscious EFFORT
Automatic processing
UNCONSCIOUS encoding of
INCIDENTAL information
Automatic processing examples
space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such
as word meanings.
How do we process automatically space?
Can you REMEMBER the page or side of the book certain charts, graphs or material is located?
How do we process automatically time?
Have you ever RETRACED your steps through the sequence of your day to find a lost item?
How do we process automatically frequency?
Can you recall how MANY TIMES today you have run into a good friend?
What was George Sperling’s sensory memory experiment?
Sperling- 1960- flashed group of letters for 1/20th second- ppl recall about half the letters
ppl signaled to recall particular row- near perfect accuracy
What is iconic memory?
FLEETING sensory memory of visual stimuli
our eyes REGISTER a picture-image memory of a scene, and
we can recall ANY part of it in amazing detail.
What is echoic memory?
IMPECCABLE, though
fleeting, sensory memory for AUDITORY stimuli
tend to LINGER for 3 or 4 seconds
Echoic memory example
Teacher ask you to repeat last few words
How are short-term and working memory related?
related idea of WORKING MEMORY also includes our ACTIVE processing, as our brain makes sense of incoming information and LINKS it with stored memories.
What is our short-term memory capacity?
Miller proposed between 5 and 9 pieces of information in STM
VARIES by TASK
How fast do short-term memories disappear?
Peterson & Peterson asked subjects to remember three-consonant
WITHOUT rehearsal, after 3 seconds, people recalled the letters only about HALF the time; after 12 seconds, they SELDOM recalled them at all.
What is our working memory capacity?
VARIES, depending on age and other factors.
YOUNG ADULTS have a GREATER working memory capacity.
What is the benefit of a large working memory capacity?
AID information RETENTION after SLEEPING and creative problem SOLVING.
What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us encode and retrieve?
Chunking
Mnemonics
Hierarchies
Strategies can make DIFFERENCE between success and failure.
What is chunking?
ORGANIZING items into familiar, MANAGEABLE units
16 items- too many- divide into 5 meaningful chunks
What is a mnemonic device?
memory aids, especially those
techniques that use vivid IMAGERY
and ORGANIZATIONAL devices, like
ACRONYMS or ACROSTICS
We more easily remember ________,
____________words (like bicycle or book)
than we do _______words (like peace or love).
concrete
visualizable
abstract
What is the peg-word system
MNEMONIC device that utilizes visual IMAGERY and this simple JINGLE
How does the peg-word system work?
Next visually ASSOCIATE the PEG-WORDS with to-be-remembered ITEMS
Associate thes peg-words with other words such as from grocery lists
How do hierarchies aid retrieval?
When we organize words or concepts into HIERARCHICAL groups, we remember them BETTER than when we see them presented RANDOMLY
How can the spacing effect impact memory retrieval?
DISTRIBUTED study or practice to yield BETTER long-term RETENTION
those who LEARN quickly also FORGET quickly
How can the testing effect impact memory retrieval?
REPEATED self-testing
TESTING improve learning & memory
What is the best strategy for learning?
Happily, “retrieval practice (or testing) is a powerful
and general strategy for learning.”
What are two levels of processing?
Shallow Processing
Deep Processing
Shallow Processing
encoding
on a BASIC level, based on the STRUCTURE or APPEARANCE of words
Deep Processing
encoding
SEMANTICALLY, based on the
MEANING of the words; tends to yield the BEST retention
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving’s work on processing levels showed the deeper, _______ processing triggered by the third question yielded ______ recall than did the ________ processing elicited by the second or first question.
Semantic
Better
Shallower
Why should I make material meaningful?
The time you spend THINKING about material you are reading and RELATING it to PREVIOUSLY stored material is about the most USEFUL thing you can do in learning any new subject matter
What is the self-reference effect?
Most people EXCEL at remembering PERSONALLY relevant information
ESPECIALLY strong in members of individualist Western cultures.
What is the capacity of long-term memory?
ESSENTIALLY LIMITLESS
storage
capacity as “in the same ballpark as the
WORLD WIDE WEB.”
Where is long-term memory stored?
Psychologist Karl Lashley (1950) trained rats to find way out of maze/surgically removed PIECES of their brain’s cortex and RETESTED their memory.
Rats ALWAYS retained PARTIAL memory
Memories are _____-based, but the brain distributes the components of a memory across a _______ of locations.
brain
network
Explicit memories are either ________ (facts and general knowledge)
such as George Washington was our first president
or ________ (experienced events)
such as I had a clown at my 6th birthday party.
semantic
episodic
semantic memory
RECALLING a password and HOLDING it in working memory would ACTIVATE the LEFT frontal lobe.
episodic memory
CALLING up a VISUAL party scene would more likely ACTIVATE the RIGHT frontal lobe.
Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the
___________
and fed to other brain regions for _______.
hippocampus
storage
Hippocampus
SUBCORTICAL limbic system structure in the TEMPORAL lobes
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory processing?
HIPPOCAMPUS can be likened to a “SAVE” button for explicit memories.
ACTIVITY in HC and nearby brain networks as people form EXPLICIT memories
What does the research show about the subregions of the hippocampus?
Sub-regions for SOCIAL information, MEMORY , SPATIAL awareness
What is memory consolidation?
not PERMANENTLY stored in the hippocampus- simply organize info like LOADING DOCK
memories shifted and STORED elsewhere
How does sleep aid memory consolidation?
HC processes memories for LATER retrieval
Brain REPLAY day’s experiences as it TRANSFERS them to cortex
When our ________ is distributed over days rather than crammed into a single day, we experience more _____-induced memory _____________.
learning
sleep
consolidation
how are implicit memories processed?
HC & frontal lobes NOT sites
CEREBELLUM- key role in forming & storing IMPLICIT memories by classical conditioning
cerebellum
“LITTLE BRAIN” at the rear of the brainstem
Process SENSORY input, MOVEMENT, BALANCE, nonverbal learning & memory
What role do the basal ganglia play in memory formation?
facilitate formation of our PROCEDURAL memories (implicit)
for SKILLS.
RECEIVE input from CORTEX/ does NOT send info back to cortex
What role does the cerebellum play in memory processing?
DAMAGED cerebellum -ppl can’t develop CONDITIONED reflexes and ASSOCIATING a tone with an impending puff of air
What is infantile amnesia?
As adults, our CONSCIOUS memory of our first four years is largely BLANK
Events occurring in this age range GRADUALLY fade as we age
What are two influences that contribute to infantile amnesia?
1- INDEX much of EXPLICIT memory with language that children don’t have
2- HC is NOT mature in small children- LESS info gets retained
amygdala
two
LIMA-BEAN-SIZED neural clusters
in the limbic system; linked to
EMOTION
What role does the amygdala play in memory processing?
Stress hormones FOCUS memory.
Stress provokes the amygdala to INITIATE a memory trace that BOOSTS activity in the brain’s memory- forming areas.
How do emotions affect our memory processing
Produce TUNNEL vision memory
FOCUS attention/ RECALL on high priority info
What is a flashbulb memory?
clear, SUSTAINED long-term memory of an EMOTIONALLY significant moment or event.
flashbulb memory examples
9/11
1986 Challenger explosion
Kennedy assassination
How does serotonin release at the synapse impact memory processing?
When learning occurs, the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter SEROTONIN into certain neurons.
These cells’ synapses then become more EFFICIENT at transmitting signals.
EXPERIENCE and learning can increase—even DOUBLE—the number of synapses, even in slugs.
How does Kandel’s research impact human memory processes?
In experiments with people, rapidly STIMULATING certain memory-circuit connections has INCREASED their SENSITIVITY for hours or even weeks to come.
The sending neuron now needs LESS prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and MORE
connections exist between neurons.
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
an INCREASE in a cell’s
FIRING potential after brief, rapid
STIMULATION; a neural basis for
LEARNING and memory
How does LTP impact receptor sites?
After LTP, receptor sites have DOUBLED
What research confirms LTP as a physical basis for memory?
Drugs that BLOCK LTP INTERFERE with learning.
Drugs that MIMIC what happens during learning INCREASE LTP.
How do cues help with memory retrieval?
ENCODING memory of target piece of info, you ASSOCIATE other bits of info
these bits serve as RETRIEVAL CUES- more CUES- BETTER chance to find memory
What are the best retrieval cues?
associations we form at the time we encode a memory—SMELLS, TASTES, & SIGHTS
What is priming?
ACTIVATION, often
UNCONSCIOUSLY, of particular
ASSOCIATIONS in long-term implicit memory
perceptual set
a tendency to perceive or notice SOME aspects of the available sensory data and IGNORE others
priming
the IMPLICIT memory effect in which exposure to a STIMULUS influences response to a LATER stimulus
How does priming work?
After seeing or hearing the word rabbit, we are later MORE likely to spell the spoken word hair/hare as
H-A-R-E, even if we don’t recall SEEING or hearing rabbit.
What is an example of priming?
If, walking down a hallway, you see a poster of a missing child, you may then UNCONSCIOUSLY be primed to interpret an AMBIGUOUS adult-child interaction
as a possible KIDNAPPING.
