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unit 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

the chemical reaction that provides energy and substances required for continued cell growth.

A

metabolism

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2
Q

what are the metabolic reactions

A

anabolic and catabolic

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3
Q

If energy in cells are used to join small molecules to build larger ones, such reactions are termed

A

anabolic

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4
Q

When complex molecules are broken down to small ones with release of energy, reaction is called

A

catabolic

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5
Q

ATP

A

(adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide, providing energy for most of the energy-consuming activities of the cell.

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6
Q

It is one of the monomers used in the synthesis of RNA.

A

ATp

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7
Q

What do ATP and ribose form together

A

nucleoside adenosine

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8
Q

what are the basic building blocks for atp

A 
carbon 
hydrogen 
nitrogen 
oxygen 
phosphorus
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9
Q

ATP is manufactured as a result of several cell processes including

A

fermentation, respiration and photosynthesis

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10
Q

what happens when ATP is removed by hydrolysis

A

energy is released

leaving ADP

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11
Q

Because of the energy released when ATP undergoes hydrolysis the bond between the second and third phosphates is commonly described as

A

a high energy bond

but its really due to the high energy

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12
Q

when ADP is recharged in the mitochondria what does it come out as

A

ATP

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13
Q

The total human body content of ATP that is recycled everyday is

A

50 grams

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14
Q

ultimate source of energy for constructing ATP is

A

food

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15
Q

the carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy

A

ATP

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16
Q

in atp is hydrolysis slow or fast in the presence of ATP and why?

A

slow

This insures that its stored energy is released only in the presence of the appropriate enzyme.

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17
Q

what cell functions is ATP used for

A

transport
mechanical
chemical

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18
Q

transport cell function

A

moving substances across cell membranes

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19
Q

mechanical cell function

A

supplying the energy needed for muscle contraction.

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20
Q

chemical cell function

A

supplying the needed energy to synthesize the multi-thousands of types of macromolecules that the cell needs to exist.

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21
Q

Small molecules which can enhance the action of an enzyme are

A

coenzymes

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22
Q

can coenzymes catalyze

A

no

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23
Q

what are coenzymes

A

These are organic non-protein molecules that bind with the protein molecule to form the active enzyme

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24
Q

A number of water-soluble vitamins such as vitamins B1, B2 and B6 are

A

coenzymes

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25
Q

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a

A

coenzyme where Vitamin niacin is bonded to ribose and ADP.

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26
Q

NADH + H+ —> (=)

A

NAD+ + 2.5 ATP

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27
Q

NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) is used in

A

anabolic reactions.

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28
Q

• FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide) has a nucleotide ____ and vitamin ____

A

adenosine diphosphate and B2

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29
Q

FADH2 —> (=)

A

FAD + 1.5 ATP

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30
Q

CoA is made up of

A

vitamin B5, phosphorylated ADP and aminoethanethiol

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31
Q

Acetyl CoA is the

A

the thioester formed, when CoA bonds to acetyl group.

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32
Q

The compounds in the respiratory chain that remove hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH are classified as

A

electron carriers

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33
Q

enzyme Q is what

A

an electron carrier in the respiratory chain

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34
Q

what happens to glucose in our blood stream

A

it undergoes degradation which is an anarobic procces

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35
Q

This process where a 6 carbon glucose molecule is broken down to yield 2 molecules of 3 carbon pyruvate, is called

A

glycolysis

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36
Q

how many reactions does glycolysis undergo and what are they called

A

10
first 5 are called the energy investing phase
second five are the energy generating phase

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37
Q

reaction 1 glycolysis

A

Phosphorylation.
add phosphate group to a molecule derived from ATP. Causing 1 ATP to be consumed.
enzyme hexokinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of many six-membered glucose-like ring structures.

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38
Q

Glucose (C6H12O6) + hexokinase + ATP → ADP + Glucose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1)

is an example of

A

phosphorylation

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39
Q

Reaction 2 glycolysis

A

Isomerization

enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer, fructose 6-phosphate. The reaction involves the rearrangement of the carbon-oxygen bond to transform the six-membered ring into a five-membered ring.

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40
Q

Glucose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1) + Phosphoglucoisomerase → Fructose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1)

is an example of

A

isomerization

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41
Q

reaction 3 glycolysis

A

phosphorylation

Fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP).

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42
Q

what enzyme catalyzes rn 3 in glycolysis

A

phosphofructokinase (PFK).

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43
Q

Fructose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1) + phosphofructokinase + ATP → ADP + Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2)

is an example of what reaction

A

rn 3 phosphorylation

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44
Q

reaction 4 of glycolysis

A

clevage

The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of each other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate.

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45
Q

Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2) + aldolase → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (C3H5O3P1) + Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1)

is an example of

A

clevage

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46
Q

reaction 4 glycolysis

A

Isomerization

The enzyme triose phosphate isomerase rapidly inter-converts the molecules dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate. Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed as soon as it is formed to be used in the next step of glycolysis.

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47
Q

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (C3H5O3P1) → Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1)

is an example of

A

isomerazation

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48
Q

reaction 6 glycolysis

A

Oxidation & Phosphorylation

The enzyme triose phosphate dehydrogenase serves two functions in this step. First the enzyme transfers a hydrogen atom from glyceraldehyde phosphate to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), which is the oxidizing agent, to form NADH. Next triose phosphate dehydrogenase adds a phosphate (P) from the cytosol to the oxidized glyceraldehyde phosphate to form 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate. This occurs for both glyceraldehyde phosphate molecules, produced in step 5.

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49
Q

A. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 H- + 2 NAD+ → 2 NADH + 2 H+
B. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 P + 2 glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1) → 2 molecules of 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate (C3H4O4P2)

are an example of

A

reaction 6 oxidation and phosphorylation

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50
Q

rn 7 glycolysis

A

phosphate transfer

1,3 bisphosphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK).
This reaction involves the loss of a phosphate group from the starting material. The phosphate is transferred to a molecule of ADP that yields our first molecule of ATP. Since we actually have two molecules of 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate (because there were two 3-carbon products from stage 1 of glycolysis), we actually synthesize two molecules of ATP at this step. With this synthesis of ATP, we have cancelled the first two molecules of ATP that we used, leaving us with a net of 0 ATP molecules up to this stage of glycolysis.

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51
Q

2 molecules of 1,3-bisphoshoglycerate (C3H4O4P2) + phosphoglycerokinase + 2 ADP → 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + 2 ATP

is an example of

A

rrn 7 phosphate ransfer

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52
Q

rn 8 glycolysis is

A

isomerization
a simple rearrangement of the position of the phosphate group on the 3 phosphoglycerate molecule, making it 2 phosphoglycerate.

The molecule responsible for catalyzing this reaction is called phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM).

The reaction mechanism proceeds by first adding an additional phosphate group to the 2′ position of the 3 phosphoglycerate. The enzyme then removes the phosphate from the 3′ position leaving just the 2′ phosphate, and thus yielding 2 phosphoglycerate. In this way, the enzyme is also restored to its original, phosphorylated state.

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53
Q

a mutase is

A

A mutase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group from one position on a molecule to another.

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54
Q

2 molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + phosphoglyceromutase → 2 molecules of 2-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1)

is what reaction

A

rn 8 isomerization

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55
Q

rn 9 glycolysis

A

dehydration
The enzyme enolase removes a water molecule from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2-phosphoglycerate.

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56
Q

2 molecules of 2-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + enolase → 2 molecules of phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) (C3H3O3P1)

example of

A

rn 9 dehydration

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57
Q

rn 10 glycolysis

A

Phosphate Transfer
The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvic acid and ATP. This happens for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATP molecules.

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58
Q

2 molecules of PEP (C3H3O3P1) + pyruvate kinase + 2 ADP → 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (C3H4O3) + 2 ATP

is an example of

A

rn 10 phosphate transfer

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59
Q

all the stages of glycolysis

A

1) phosphorylation
2) isomerization
3) phosphorylation
4) cleavage
5) isomerization
6) oxidation/phosphorylation
7) phosphate transfer
8) isomerization
9) dehydration
10) phosphate transfer

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60
Q

tricarboxylic acid cycle (krebs cycle)

A

1) formation of citrate
2) isomerization
3) oxidation/decaboxylation
4) oxidation/decarboxylation
5) hydrolysis
6) oxidation
7) hydration
8) oxidation

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61
Q

reaction 1 krebs cycle

A

Formation of Citrate
The first reaction of the citric acid cycle is catalyzed by the enzyme citrate synthase. In this step, oxaloacetate is joined with acetyl-CoA to form citrate, a tertiary alcohol. Once the two molecules are joined, a water molecule attacks the acetyl leading to the release of coenzyme A from the complex.

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62
Q

reaction 2 krebs cycle

A

Isomerization The next reaction of the citric acid cycle is catalyzed by the enzyme aconitase. In this reaction, a water molecule is removed from the citric acid and then put back on in another location.(dehydration followed by hydration) This transformation yields the molecule isocitrate, a secondary alcohol.

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63
Q

reaction 3 krebs cycle

A

Oxidation & Decarboxylation Two events occur in reaction 3 of the citric acid cycle. In the first reaction, we see our first generation of NADH from NAD. The enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the –OH group at the 4’ position of isocitrate to yield an intermediate which then has a carbon dioxide molecule removed from it to yield alpha-ketoglutarate.

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64
Q

rn 4 krebs cycle

A

Decarboxylation & Oxidation
Alpha-ketoglutarate loses a carbon dioxide molecule and coenzyme A is added in its place. The decarboxylation occurs with the help of NAD, which is converted to NADH. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. The resulting molecule is called succinyl-CoA.

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65
Q

step 5 krebs cycle

A

hydrolysis
The enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase catalyzes the fifth reaction of the citric acid cycle. In this step a molecule of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is synthesized. GTP synthesis occurs with the addition of a free phosphate group to a GDP molecule (similar to ATP synthesis from ADP). In this reaction, a free phosphate group first attacks the succinyl-CoA molecule releasing the CoA. After the phosphate is attached to the molecule, it is transferred to the GDP to form GTP. The resulting product is the molecule succinate.

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66
Q

GTP is

A

GTP is a molecule that is very similar in its structure and energetic properties to ATP and can be used in cells in much the same way.

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67
Q

step 6 krebs cycle

A

oxidation
The enzyme succinate dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of two hydrogens from succinate in the sixth reaction of the citric acid cycle. In the reaction, a molecule of FAD, a coenzyme similar to NAD, is reduced to FADH2 as it takes the hydrogens from succinate. The product of this reaction is fumarate. FAD, like NAD, is the oxidized form while FADH2 is the reduced form. FAD oxidizes carbon-carbon double and triple bonds while NAD oxidizes mostly carbon-oxygen bonds.

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68
Q

rn 7 krebs cycle

A

hydration

Water is added to fumarate during step seven, and L-malate is produced. Catalyst used is fumarase.

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69
Q

reaction 8 krebs cycle

A

Oxidation
In the final reaction of the citric acid cycle, we regenerate oxaloacetate by oxidizing L–malate with a molecule of NAD to produce NADH. The catalyst used is malate dehydrogenase.

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70
Q

basis of krebs cycle

A

1) acetyl-CoA, is oxidized to two molecules of carbon dioxide.
2) Three molecules of NAD were reduced to NADH.
3) One molecule of FAD was reduced to FADH2.
4) One molecule of GTP (the equivalent of ATP) was produced.

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71
Q

Electron transport is

A

the series of reactions taking place in mitochondria of the cell

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72
Q

This includes the electron transfer from NADH and FADH2 to electron carriers and finally to O2 provide energy for

A

ATP synthesis

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73
Q

ATP and ADP levels in the cells control

A

the activity of electron transport.

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74
Q

Oxidation of NADH yields how much ATP

A

2.5 ATP

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75
Q

FADH2 yields how much ATP

A

1.5 ATP

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76
Q

when is oxidative phosphorylation completed.

A

When energy from electron transport is combined with the synthesis of ATP

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77
Q

Complete oxidation of glucose from the above processes and direct phosphate yields how much ATP

A

32

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78
Q

Oxidative-phosphorylation is the use of

A

electrons falling from the hydrogen in glucose to the oxygen in a living cell.

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79
Q

What provide the energy necessary to pump H+ ions

A

falling electrons

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80
Q

When these H+ ions fall back, this energy is used to

A

attach a phosphate group (phosphorylate) to ADP to make the high energy molecule ATP, which the cell can now use again to do vital work.

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81
Q

Digestion is

A

catabolic process where large molecules are converted into smaller ones.

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82
Q

How are carbs digested

A

First the carbohydrates are broken down using the enzyme, amylase to maltose, glucose and dextrins (3 to 8 glucose units).

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83
Q

what stops carbohydrate digestion in the stomach

A

low ph

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84
Q

Enzyme in the pancreas

A

pancreatic amylase convert dextrins into maltose and glucose

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85
Q

Enzymes produced in the mucosal lines of small intestine

A

The enzymes are maltase, lactase and sucrose respectively. The resultant monosaccharides are absorbed into bloodstream and carried to the liver.

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86
Q

where are fructose and galactose converted into glucose

A

the liver

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87
Q

Body fat is the major source of

A

stored energy

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88
Q

. Digestion of fats begin in the

A

small intestine

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89
Q

Bile salts with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions are secreted from

A

gall bladder into small intestine. These interact with both hydrophobic fat and aqueous solution (hydrophilic) in small intestine.

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90
Q

emulsification

A

Bile break fat into smaller droplets called micelles

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91
Q

Pancreatic lipases from pancreas, hydrolyze

A

triacylglycerols into monoacylglycerols and fatty acids.

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92
Q

Most of the energy stored in the human body is in the form of

A

triacylglycerols

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93
Q

They recombine within the intestinal wall to form triacylglycerol back which when coated with protein and phospholipids, form

A

chylomicrons.

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94
Q

Are chylomicrons polar or nonpolar

A

This is polar which makes it soluble in bloodstream.

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95
Q

Lipase hydrolyze triacylglycerol to

A

glycerol and fatty acids

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96
Q

Fatty acid is further oxidized to

A

acetyl CoA for ATP synthesis

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97
Q

Digestion of protein begins in the

A

stomach

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98
Q

how does digestion of protein begin

A

It begins with the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in the denatured protein which reached the stomach

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99
Q

how is protein digested

A

is made possible by the enzyme, pepsin. The polypeptides enter small intestine, where pH is about 7-8. Thus pepsin is inactivated, due to the lower pH value. (pepsin acts at pH 1-2).

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100
Q

Proteases

A

break the polypeptides to amino acids and dipeptides. Through active transport along the small intestine lining, the amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream.

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101
Q

`1. The first stage of catabolism is

A

digestion of large molecules.

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102
Q

The middle stage of catabolism is the point at which

A

acetyl CoA is produced

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103
Q

Protein synthesis takes place in

A

on the ribosomes.

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104
Q
  1. The synthesis of glycogen can be classified as a
A

Anabolic reaction

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105
Q
  1. The final products of catabolic reactions are
A

a. carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia

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106
Q
  1. The hydrolysis of ADP to give AMP and Pi, releases approximately the same amount of energy as
A

a. ATP → ADP + Pi.

107
Q
  1. Muscle contraction is an example of a
A

a. Catabolic process

108
Q
  1. Muscle contraction requires
A

a. Calcium Ion and ATP

109
Q
  1. NAD+ participates in reactions that produce
A

a. a C=O bond.

110
Q
  1. FAD is a coenzyme which usually participates in
A

a. formation of carbon-carbon double bonds.

111
Q
  1. Coenzyme A is a molecule whose function is to
A

a. Produce acyl groups for reaction

112
Q
  1. An enzyme that can facilitate the breakdown of starch into smaller units is
A

a. Amylase

113
Q
  1. The digestion of carbohydrates goes from
A

a. polysaccharides to dextrins to glucose.

114
Q
  1. In the process of glycolysis, glucose is converted to
A

pryuvate

115
Q
  1. The overall process of glycolysis
A

a. produces 2 ATP molecules

116
Q

Which of the following metabolic pathways can occur in the absence of oxygen?

A

glycolysis

117
Q
  1. When one glucose molecule undergoes glycolysis it generates
A

a. 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

118
Q
  1. The primary energy source for the brain is
A

a. Glucose

119
Q

When combined with electron transport, one turn of the citric acid cycle produces

A

12 ATP

120
Q

The citric acid cycle is used in the oxidation of

A

a. glucose, fatty acids, and proteins.

121
Q

What electron acceptor(s) is(are) used in the citric acid cycle

A

b. NAD+ + FAD

122
Q

When oxygen is in plentiful supply in the cell, pyruvate is converted to

A

acetyl COA

123
Q

Which of the three major stages of metabolism includes the citric acid cycle?

A

stage three

124
Q

The citric acid cycle takes place in the

A

mitochondria

125
Q

The citric acid cycle step that removes the first CO2 molecule is a(n)

A

oxidative decarboxylation

126
Q

In the third major step of the citric acid cycle, NAD+ is converted to

A

NADH

127
Q

Step 5 of the citric acid cycle is the hydrolysis of succinyl CoA. In this reaction the energy released is used to make

A

GTP

128
Q

In the hydrolysis of succinyl CoA in step 5 of the citric acid cycle, CoA is released as to make

A

GTP

129
Q

The GTP formed in step 5 of the citric acid cycle is used to make

A

ATP

130
Q

In the dehydration of succinate to fumarate in the citric acid cycle, the coenzyme used is

A

FAD

131
Q

In step 7 of the citric acid cycle, fumarate is converted to malate by a

A

hydration reaction

132
Q

The last step in the citric acid cycle converts malate to

A

oxaloacetate

133
Q

What is the correct coefficient for ATP in the complete combustion of glucose?

A

36

134
Q

Overall, one turn of the citric acid cycle produces how much ATP

A

12

135
Q

In glycolysis, glucose produces 2 pyruvate ions and a total of _______ ATP molecules.

A

6 ATP

136
Q

The complete oxidation of glucose produces ________ ATP molecules

A

36 ATP

137
Q

acetyl CoA → 2CO2

produces how much ATP

A

12 ATP

138
Q

glucose → 2 pyruvate under aerobic conditions

produces how much ATP

A

6 ATP

139
Q

glucose → 2 lactate

produces how much ATP

A

2 ATP

140
Q

pyruvate → acetyl CoA + CO2

produces how much ATP

A

3

141
Q

the process that makes ATP using energy from the electron transport chain

A

oxidative phosphorylation

142
Q

the carrier of acetyl (two-carbon) groups coenzyme

A

coenzyme A

143
Q

the conversion of glucose to pyruvic acid

A

glycolysis

144
Q

the series of reactions that converts acetyl CoA to carbon dioxide and water

A

citric acid cycle

145
Q

the series of reactions that produces water

A

electron transport

146
Q

the series of reactions that uses electron carriers

A

electron transport

147
Q

What is metabolism

A

the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.q

148
Q

Name the type of cells with nucleus

A

Eukaryotic

149
Q

What are the final products obtained after the digestion of Carbohydrates

A

glucose

150
Q

What are the final products obtained after the digestion of proteins

A

amnio acids

151
Q

What are the final products obtained after the digestion of fats

A

carbs and proteins

152
Q

Write the equation for the hydrolysis of

ATP to ADP.

A

ATP(4-)+H20 => ADP(3-) + Pi(2-) + H+

153
Q

What are coenzymes

A

Coenzymes bind to the enzyme and assist in enzyme activity

154
Q

Which are the enzymes for oxidation?

A

An oxidative enzyme is an enzyme that catalyses oxidation reaction. Two most common types of oxidative enzymes areperoxidases, which use hydrogen peroxide, and oxidases, which use molecular oxygen. They increase the rate at whichATP is produced aerobically.

155
Q

coenzymes

A

The active forms of riboflavin, vitamin B 2, are the coenzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN; Figure 2) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

156
Q

Write the reduced form for FAD

A

FADH2

157
Q

Write the reduced form for NAD+

A

NADH

158
Q

Write the reduced form for NADP+

A

NADPH

159
Q

Vitamin for FAD

A

B2

160
Q

Vitamin for NAD+

A

B3

161
Q

Vitamin for COA

A

B5

162
Q

Where do lactose undergo digestion in our body?

A

small inestine

163
Q

What are the reactants and products of glycolysis?

A

Reactant- glucose

Product- The net end products of glycolysis are two Pyruvate, two NADH, and two ATP

164
Q

Location of fat digestion and enzyme used

A

small intestine

lipase

165
Q

What are the final products of digested fat?

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

166
Q

Which are the phosphorylation reactions in glycolysis?

A

RN 1,3

167
Q

What are the products from one turn of citric acid cycle?

A

12 ATP

168
Q

Name the enzyme that catalyzes reaction of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate.

A

coenzyme q

169
Q

Name the coenzyme that accepts H in the conversion of Isocitrate to alpha ketoglutarate

A

NAD+

170
Q

Name the coenzyme that accepts H in the conversion of Succinate to fumarate

A

FAD

171
Q

How are glycolysis and citric acid cycle linked to the production of ATP by electron transport?

A

ATP Yield; In glycolysis is 2, citric acid cycle is 2 and electron transport chain is 34. Remember the ATP created from ETC was originally from the NADH and FADH2 in glycolysis and Citric acid cycle and pyruvate oxidation. In total the theoretical yield is 38 ATP.

172
Q

How many turns of citric acid cycle are required to oxidize 1 molecule of glucose?

A

two turns

173
Q

What is the main function of citric acid cycle in energy production?

A

Oxidising acetyl CoA producing reduced coenzymes which can be oxidised in the ETC to produce ATP energy

174
Q

List the differences between beta oxidation and lipogenesis.

A

Location
Reaction
Carrier
Reducing Power/redox agent

175
Q

Name the base present in ATP.

A

Adenine

176
Q

Glutamate dehydrogenase is the enzyme used in

A

deamination

177
Q

New amino acid and a new keto acid are produced as a result of

A

a) Transamination

178
Q

List the functions of ATP

A

ATPs are used as the main energy source for metabolic functions.

179
Q

What is GTP? In which process is it produced?

A

Energy transfer. GTP is involved in energy transfer within the cell. For instance, aGTP molecule is generated by one of the enzymes in the citric acid cycle. This is tantamount to the generation of one molecule of ATP, since GTP is readily converted to ATP with nucleoside-diphosphate kinase (NDK).

180
Q

Transamination-

A

As a result of transamination reaction, amino group is transferred from an amino acid to keto acid. Thus a new amino acid and a new keto acid are produced. Enzymes used are transaminases or aminotransferases.

181
Q

Deamination-

A

Amino group in glutamate is removed as an ammonium ion in the process of oxidative deamination. This is catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase, which uses NAD+ as a coenzyme.

182
Q

Lipogenesis

A

The production of new fatty acids is called lipogenesis, where acyl carrier protein is used. Synthesis takes place within cytoplasm and initiated when pancreas sense a high level of glucose in blood. As a result, secretion of insulin occurs and glucose is shifted to cells. Enzyme, fatty acid synthase is produced which converts acetyl CoA(initial substrate) into malonyl CoA which is further converted into palmitate, a fatty acid. Cells modify palmitate to make specific fatty acids. Different types of reactions involved are reduction, dehydration and condensation.

183
Q

Beta oxidation

A

a. Oxidation takes place in cytoplasm, when blood glucose level is low. Thus, secretion of glucagon takes place and fatty acid is the initial substrate. Enzymes cut off fatty acids from triglycerides and these fatty acids are absorbed into the cytoplasm and further into mitochondria. As a result of oxidation, hydration and cleavage, the final product is acetyl CoA.

184
Q

phosphorylation

A

It is the process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule derived from ATP. As a result, 1 molecule of ATP is consumed. The reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of many six-membered glucose-like ring structures.

185
Q

Chylomicrons

A

This is polar which makes it soluble in bloodstream.

186
Q

coenzyme

A

9) Small molecules which can enhance the action of an enzyme are coenzymes. They cannot by themselves catalyze a reaction but they can help enzymes to do so. These are organic non-protein molecules that bind with the protein molecule to form the active enzyme. A number of water-soluble vitamins such as vitamins B1, B2 and B6 serve as coenzymes.

187
Q

Digestion is a

A

catabolic process where large molecules are converted into smaller ones

188
Q

First the carbohydrates are broken down using the

A

enzyme, amylase to maltose, glucose and dextrins (3 to 8 glucose units).

189
Q

what stops carbohydrate digestion

A

The low pH in stomach

190
Q

Enzyme in the pancreas, _____ convert dextrins into maltose and glucose.

A

pancreatic amylase

191
Q

Enzymes produced in the mucosal lines of small intestine hydrolyze maltose, lactose and sucrose. The enzymes are

A

maltase, lactase and sucrose

192
Q

The resultant of the digestion of carbohydrates

A

monosaccharides are absorbed into bloodstream and carried to the liver. Finally fructose and galactose are converted into glucose at liver.

193
Q

major source of stored energy

A

Body fat

194
Q

Digestion of fats begin in the

A

small intestine.

195
Q

Bile salts with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions are secreted from

A

gall bladder into small intestine.

196
Q

These interact with both hydrophobic fat and aqueous solution (hydrophilic) in small intestine.

A

bile salts

197
Q

Bile break fat into

A

smaller droplets called micelles through a process termed, emulsification.

198
Q

Pancreatic lipases from pancreas, hydrolyze

A

triacylglycerols into monoacylglycerols and fatty acids.

199
Q

Most of the energy stored in the human body is in the form of

A

triacylglycerols.

200
Q

They recombine within the intestinal wall to form triacylglycerol back which when coated with protein and phospholipids, form

A

chylomicrons

201
Q

chylomicrons

A

This is polar which makes it soluble in bloodstream. Lipase hydrolyze triacylglycerol to glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acid is further oxidized to acetyl CoA for ATP synthesis.

202
Q

Digestion of protein begins in the

A

stomach

203
Q

digestion begins with the

A

hydrolysis of peptide bonds in the denatured protein which reached the stomach.

204
Q

the hydrolysis of peptide bonds is made possible by the enzyme

A

pepsin

205
Q

The polypeptides enter small intestine, where pH is about

A

7-8

206
Q

what inactivates pepsin

A

pepsin is inactivated, due to the lower pH value. (pepsin acts at pH 1-2).

207
Q

break the polypeptides to amino acids and dipeptides.

A

proteases

208
Q

the amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream how

A

Through active transport

209
Q

The production of new fatty acids is called

A

lipogenesis

210
Q

what carrier protein is used in lipogenisis

A

acyl

211
Q

lipogenisis synthesis takes place within

A

cytoplasm

212
Q

what initiates synthesis during lipogenisis

A

initiated when pancreas sense a high level of glucose in blood.

213
Q

what is secreated when he pancreas senses a high level of glucose

A

secretion of insulin occurs and glucose is shifted to cells

214
Q

what enzyme is produced during lipogenesis which converts acetyl CoA(initial substrate) into malonyl CoA which is further converted into palmitate

A

fatty acid synthase

215
Q

palmitate,

A

a fatty acid

216
Q

Cells modify palmitate to

A

make specific fatty acids.

217
Q

what different types of reactions are involved in lipogenesis

A

reduction, dehydration and condensation

218
Q

BETA Oxidation takes place where and when

A

in cytoplasm, when blood glucose level is low

219
Q

results of oxidation

A

hydration and cleavage, the final product is acetyl CoA.

220
Q

Amino acids are degraded to

A

substrates that enter energy-producing pathways

221
Q

Hydrolysis of peptide bonds is made by the enzyme

A

pepsin

222
Q

Enzymes, ____ complete the hydrolysis of peptides to amino acids.

A

trypsin and chymotrypsin

223
Q

Denaturation of proteins is done by

A

HCl.

224
Q

The process of breaking down proteins and synthesizing new ones is called

A

protein turnover

225
Q

The amount of protein broken down is equal to

A

the amount reused.

226
Q

Only a small amount of our energy needs is supplied by

A

amino acids

227
Q

When carbohydrates and fat stores are exhausted, energy is extracted from

A

amino acids

228
Q

Body cannot store

A

nitrogen, and the extra amino acids are excreted.

229
Q

a diet insufficient in protein leads to a

A

negative nitrogen balance

230
Q

When dietary protein exceeds the nitrogen needed for protein synthesis, excess amino acids are

A

degraded

231
Q

The amino group is removed to yield a

A

keto acid, which can be converted to an intermediate for other metabolic pathways.

232
Q

Degradation of amino acids occurs primarily in the

A

liver

233
Q

transamination reaction,

A

amino group is transferred from an amino acid to keto acid

234
Q

Enzymes used during degradation of proteins and amino acids

A

transaminases or aminotransferases

235
Q

Amino group in glutamate is removed as an ammonium ion in the process of oxidative

A

deamination.

236
Q

deamination is catalyzed by

A

by glutamate dehydrogenase, which uses NAD+ as a coenzyme

237
Q

CITRIC ACID CYCLE reactions

A

dehydration & hydration, oxidation & reduction, hydrolysis

238
Q 
Krebs cycle
1. FORMATION OF CITRATE 
enzyme 
reactants
products
A

Enzyme: citrate synthasereactants: oxalo acetate and acetyl CoAproducts: citrate & CoA

239
Q 
Krebs cycle 
2. isomerization 
enzyme 
reactant
product
A

enzyme: aconitase
reactant: citrate
product: isocitrate

240
Q 
krebs cycle 
3. oxidation and decarboxylation
enzyme
reactant
product
A

enzyme: isocitrate dehydrogenase
reactant: isocitrate product: alpha-ketoglutarate

241
Q 
krebs cycle 
4. DECARBOXYLATION & OXIDATION
enzyme 
reactant 
product
A

enzyme: alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
reactant: alpha keto glutarate
product: succinyl CoA

242
Q 
Krebs cycle 
5. HYDROLYSIS
enzyme 
reactant
product
A

enzyme: succinyl CoA synthetase
reactant: succinyl CoA
product: succinate

243
Q 
Krebs Cycle 
6. OXIDATION
Enzyme 
Reactant
Product
A

enzyme: succinate dehydrogenase
reactant: succinate
product: fumarate

244
Q 
Krebs Cycle 
7. HYDRATION
Enzyme 
Reactant 
Product
A

enzyme: fumarase
reactant: fumarate
product: malate

245
Q 
Krebs Cycle 
8. OXIDATION
Enzyme 
Reactant
Product
A

enzyme: malate dehydrogenase
reactant: malate
product: oxaloacetate

246
Q

Catabolic reactions stages

A

STAGE 1 : DIGESTION
STAGE 2 : DEGRADATION & OXIDATION
STAGE 3 : OXIDATION

247
Q

STAGE 1 : DIGESTION

A

Enzymes in digestive tract hydrolyze larger molecules into smaller ones

248
Q

STAGE 2 : DEGRADATION & OXIDATION

A

Digested products broken down to pyruvate and acetyl CoA

249
Q

STAGE 3 : OXIDATION

A

Coenzymes produced as a result of citric acid cycle leads to the formation of ATP.

250
Q

glycerol & fatty acids are broken down by

A

beta oxidation

251
Q

monosaccharides are broken down by

A

glycolysis

252
Q

amino acids are broken down by

A

transamination

253
Q

Nucleotide used in synthesis of RNA

A

ATP

254
Q

ATP sugar

A

ribose

255
Q

bond between ribose & phosphate

A

Phosphate ester bond

256
Q

bond between PO4 groups

A

2 phosphate anhydride bonds

257
Q

bond between adenine & ribose

A

Glycoside bond

258
Q

coenzyme reactions OXIDATION

A

Gain of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen
Loss of electrons
Energy released

259
Q

Oxidoreductases:

A

catalyze oxidation /reduction reactions (oxidase, dehydrogenase)

260
Q

Transferases

A

catalyze transfer of a functional group b/w compounds (transaminase, kinase)

261
Q

Hydrolase

A

catalyzes hydrolysis by splitting a compound into 2 products (protease, lipase, nuclease)

262
Q

Lyase

A

catalyze addition or removal of a group without hydrolysis (decarboxylase, deaminase, dehydratase, hydratase)

263
Q

Isomerases

A

catalyze rearrangement within a substrate (epimerase)

264
Q

Ligases:

A

catalyze joining of 2 substrates using ATP (synthetase, carboxylase)

Chem 2 (9 decks)

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