Unit 8 Case Study: Iceland's Energy Mix and Namibia Environmental Degradation

Question 1

Overview of current production

Answer 1

Utilizes hydroelectric (70%) and geothermal (30%) power for nearly all energy production
Highest per capita energy consumption globally and a world leader in renewables
Renewables have been prioritised since the 1970’s oil crisis to reduce fossil fuel dependency
Largely self sufficient in terms of electricity
Only imports a small amount of fossil fuels for transport and industry

Question 2

Sustainability targets

Answer 2

40% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030 relative to 1990
Efforts with Norway and the EU to reduce emissions by 55% by 2030
Achieve carbon neutrality by 2040

Question 3

Sustainability

Answer 3

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Question 4

Current uses

Answer 4

Used for heating, lighting and appliances given the low cost and high availability
Industry consumes 80% of electricity and attracts heavy industries due to low electricity prices and renewable energy availability
Demand for heating increases in winter due to cold temperatures
Demand for energy has grown with the economy for industry but changes in consumption have been minimal

Question 5

Climatic factors

Answer 5

Colder temperature and shorter days increase energy consumption
There is higher energy consumption for heating and water in cold weather but this has a very small effect on energy demand. These are met by geothermally heated water
The longer days in the summer drive demand for lighting and electrical device consumption but overall consumption is mainly influenced by industry

Question 6

Heavy industry impact on demand

Answer 6

Aluminum smelting involves the conversion of alumina into aluminum through electrolysis using electricity to separate aluminum and oxygen ions accounting for 66% of total electricity consumption
Mainly carried out at the Fjardaal smelter in West Iceland owned by Alcoa Corporation

Question 7

Technology impact on demand

Answer 7

Crypto requires consumption to process instructions and data to mine for currency
These generate electricity demand and produce waste heat so need cooling to be efficiency
The Icelandic environment is ideal for this, reducing inputs

Question 8

Tourism impact on demand

Answer 8

There has been growth of the tourism sector since Eyjafjallajokull eruption in 2010
As tourism recovers from COVID-19 energy demands are rising
Tourism board recognises the need to reduce carbon footprint

Question 9

Other industries impacts on demand

Answer 9

The achieve energy security there needs to be less dependent on imported oil
There is limited public transport outside of Reykjavik where 80% of the population lives
Transport is the largest consumer of fossil fuels through petrol and diesel combustion
Orka natturunnar as invested in charging points supported by the government for EV’s
In 2021 58% of all cars sold in Iceland were electric and 13% of the rest were partly electric
The ferry connecting Vestmannaeyjar Islands can operate entirely on electricity
Transport will continue to replace oil causing a growing demand for electricity to charge batteries

Question 10

Industry conflicts with supply and demand

Answer 10

Heavy industry puts the grid under pressure
Limited room to expand hydroelectric and geothermal resources leading to an electricity cap
New industries may find it hard to secure energy
Large dams disrupt ecosystems, river flow and local fish populations
Geothermal plants can cause subsidence, hydrogen sulfide release and other local issues
Energy development has conflicted with preservations due to the value of the natural landscape and biodiversity

Question 11

Geographical conflicts with supply and demand

Answer 11

Power plants are in remote areas so need transmission networks which are expensive
The grid is small and isolated so it is hard to export any surplus leaving it vulnerable to disruptions

Question 12

Hydropower supply

Answer 12

Karahnjukar and Burfell power plants
Located in highlands to harness glacial rivers impacting ecosystems and landscapes
Reliable with minimal emissions and provides baseload power that can adjust to demand

Question 13

Geothermal power supply

Answer 13

Hellisheidi and Nesjavellir plants
Located with geothermal activity in the Southwest regions
Stable with low carbon footprints reducing dependence on electricity for heating

Question 14

Wind and solar power supply

Answer 14

Limited sunlight so solar is not as feasible
Wind has potential but high winds can be dangerous
Offshore wind farms are being developed to add energy capacity and diversify the mix

Question 15

Geothermal power mix

Answer 15

On a constructive boundary with a mantle plume hotspot causing increased tectonic activity and potential to harness geothermal heat by drilling into the crust
Geothermal is used in the primary energy mix and provides ⅓ of total electricity
Hellisheidi can produce 300 MW to provide baseload power
Not completely carbon neutral
Fluids and Hellisheidi contain non-condensable gases which are emitted

Question 16

Hydroelectric power mix

Answer 16

There are 37 large HEP stations and 200 smaller sites
Reliable storage of water in reservoirs and flow control in turbines enables generation as needed
Mainly used in powering aluminum smelting like the Karahnjukar plant in East Iceland
Climate change will accelerate ice melting causing increased river flow
Needs sufficient turbine capacity and storage to minimise wastage of increased flow

Question 17

Wind power mix

Answer 17

generated from 2 turbines in the North
There are concerns over wind turbines operating in extreme conditions
Installation of wind turbines has a lower and reversible environmental impact compared to HEP dams so is likely to increase in the future

Question 18

Importance of electricity production

Answer 18

The Russia - Ukraine conflict showed the importance of energy security for availability and affordability
Plans for IceLink, a 1200 MW power cable between Iceland and the UK are underway enabling Iceland to export low carbon renewable energy and supporting the UK’s renewables transition
5800 GWh of electricity per year would need to be produced to make IceLink feasible which is beyond the capacity of existing infrastructure
Increasing capacity carries the risk of conflict with populations, the tourist industry and the natural landscape
There are also concerns about over tourism along the South coast so tourism needs to be more sustainable in the future

Question 19

Carbfix

Answer 19

Carbon sequestration includes tree planting, wetland restoration, soil conservation and the utilisation of carbon to produce materials such as graphene for smartphones and processors
At the Hellisheidi Power Plant CO2 emissions are captured and dissolved in water resulting in an pacific solution
This is injected into reactive rocks like basalt where it interacts creating calcium, magnesium and iron
Over time these combine with CO2 and mineralise forming stable compounds

Question 20

Location of Hellisheidi

Answer 20

The plant is 20 km SE of Reykjavik, Iceland’s capital in the SW. This is part of the Hengill volcanic system which is very geothermally active. There are active volcanoes, hot springs and geysers which contribute to the energy. Iceland’s position on the North American and Eurasian plate boundary makes it one of the most geothermally active areas. Since Hellisheidi is near Reykjavik with most of Iceland’s energy demand the plant can efficiently supply electricity and heating to the capital. Geothermal energy allows Icleands 350000 people access to low cost, reliable energy for individuals and industries

Question 21

The geothermal process of Hellisheidi

Answer 21

The process works by using heat stored in the crust which is transferred through rocks to the surface. Hellisheidi uses a closed loop system. Deep wells of 2500m are drilled into the geothermal reservoir beneath the volcanic area with temperatres of 300C. Water is injected into the ground with a set of wells where it is heated and extracted by other wells as steam. The steam is transported to turbines which spin a generator producing 303 MW (can meet the needs of 100000 homes)

Question 22

District heating with Hellisheidi

Answer 22

The steam can also be used for district heating, supplying 60% of Reykjavík’s heating requirements. The CHP system increases efficiency by minimising waste and keeping energy costs low while providing a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels

Question 23

Hellisheidi demand challenges

Answer 23

Recently Iceland has seen an increase in population, urbanisation and industrial development putting pressure on Reykjavík’s energy infrastructure. Many of these industries are energy intensive such as data centres and aluminum smelting. Companies choose Iceland for its cheap, renewable energy which will increase demand, especially in winter when heating is needed. Iceland is also a popular tourist area which increases energy demand especially in remote areas for service development. This requires careful planning and infrastructure expansion

Question 24

Hellisheidi supply challenges

Answer 24

Geothermal reservoirs are finite and over extraction of heat and steam could reduce energy availability. If not managed, reservoir pressure can drop, reducing the amount of steam and therefore energy that can be produced. To improve and ensure long term sustainability the pressure and temperature of wells are monitored, cooled water is reinjected into the reservoir and the rate at which steam is extracted is regulated. Geothermal plants are relatively low maintenance but the involved high temperatures and pressure can cause break down of equipment. Scheduled maintenance shutdowns are planned to minimise supply disruptions

Question 25

Hellisheidi renewable emissions

Answer 25

85% of Iceland’s energy comes from renewables. Hellisheidi is one of the largest plants producing 303 MW to contribute to the national grid. Geothermal energy is not affected by weather so is a reliable source of baseload power. Iceland has therefore reduced fossil fuel dependence for electricity and heating reducing carbon emissions significantly. Hellisheidi is an important part for Iceland to be carbon neutral

Question 26

Hellisheidi economies benefits

Answer 26

The plant provides cheap, reliable energy and has attracted energy intensive industries like aluminium smelting and data centres to diversity the economy. It has created jobs and boosted businesses especially in Reykjavik. The distrcit heating head made heating more affordable for locals to reduce energy costs. This is especially important in winter where temperatures drop significantly

Question 27

Hellisheidi future challenges

Answer 27

Iceland has access to vast renewable energy resources so can avoid environmental problems due to fossil fuel dependence. It produces almost no greenhouse gases so contributes to Iceland’s goal of reducing carbon footprint. The closed loop system ensures sustainability. This minimises environmental damage and preserves the ecosystem. Operators continue to work to improve extraction efficiency to reduce costs and environmental impacts. Technology is being developed to catch CO2 emissions and reinject them into the ground, reducing the environmental footprint. Challenges include managing increasing demand, ensuring sustainability and mitigating environmental impacts

Question 28

Overview of Namibia

Answer 28

Namibia is very sparsely populated with a dry climate
29% of its population live below the poverty line
The government is attempting to tackle poverty and environmental degradation at the same time
The causes of degradation are mainly uncontrolled exploitation by low income households that have to think short term in order to survive

Question 29

Namibia community conservancy programme

Answer 29

This programme gives rural communities unprecedented management and use rights over wildlife which have created new incentives for communities to protect his resource and develop economic opportunities in tourism. It began in 1996 and there are now 64 conservancies over 17% of the country embracing 1 in 4 of rural Namibians. Community conservancies are legal common property resource management organisations in communal lands. The use rights given include the rights to hunt, capture, cull and sell huntable game. The government determines the overall culling rate and establishes quotes for protecting game for trophy hunting. Elephant numbers have more than doubled between 1982 and 2000 as well as rises in the populations of oryx, springbok and mountain zebra. This results from a decline in illegal hunting and poaching due to the economic value that conservancy communities put on healthy wildlife populations

Question 30

New economic activities in Namibia

Answer 30

Contracts with tourism companies
Selling hunting concessions
Managing campsites
Selling wildlife to game ranchers
Selling crafts

Question 31

Employment opportunities in Namibia

Answer 31

The diversification of economic activity made possible by the Conservancy Programme has increased employment opportunities where few were before and raised incomes. Conservancies are built around the willingness of communities to work collectively. They form when neighbouring villages and tribal authorities agree to trade a boundary around their shared borders and manage the wildlife in this area

Question 32

Conservancy related income in Namibia

Answer 32

The Conservancy Programme has resulted in substantial progress with income rising year on year. In 2006, conservancy income reach nearled $1.4 million. Income from small businesses associated with the conservancies but not directly owned by them brought in another $580000. An important aspect of development has been the involvement of women in employment benefits. These jobs have included being game guards, natural resource monitors and serving tourists in campgrounds and lodges. Rising income has made increasing investment in social development projects possible

Question 33

Resource management in Namibia

Answer 33

The Namibian government has extended the conservancy concept to community forests. This is a scaling-up process from one natural resource system to another
The project helps local communities establish their own community forests to manage and utilise them sustainably
It is important that Namibians have a say in how resources and mangened and share benefits. About 4 million hectares of forest and veld and burnt annually as a result of fires started deliberately to improve grazing and clear hunting grounds. Community forests has led to improved forest resource management and improved the livelihoods of local people based on the empowerment of local communities with forest use rights
Villagers derive an income by marketing forestry products

Question 34

Establishing a community forest in Namibia

Answer 34

Submit a formal application to the government. Elect a forest management committee from the community. Develop a constitution. Select, map and denmark a community forest area. Submit a forest management plan describing how the community will harvest forest resources sustainable and manage other activities. Specify use rights and bylaws necessary for their management plan. Craft a plan to ensure the equitable distribution of revenue to all community members. Obtain permission from the authority

Question 35

Namibia pilot project

Answer 35

Land degradation was identified as a serious problem in Namibia
Five government department with international agencies established a Country Pilot Partnership for Integrated Sustainable Land Management
These were funded through the Global Environmental Facility with the UN Development Programme as well as the EU
It began in 2008 and ran until 2011
The objective was to develop and pilot a range of coping mechanisms for reducing the vulnerability of farmers and pastoralists to climate change including variability
It took place in and out of communal conservancies
It was based on what Namibia has learned from the establishment of communal and forest conservancies