Glossary Definitions Flashcards
we all know im never studying these
Absolute humidity
The total mass of water vapour in a given volume of air, regardless of the temperature
Abrasion
In erosion, is the impact of particles hitting rock and soil
Acculturation
When one culture becomes similar to another through contact
Acid rain
Rain that contains a high concentration of pollutants, notably sulfur and nitrogen oxides. These pollutants are produced from factories and power stations burning fossil fuels and car exhausts and once in the atmosphere the sulfur and nitrogen oxides combine with moisture to give sulfuric and nitric acids which fall as corrosive rain
Acidification
Is when liquids become acidic. Rocks and minerals can be dissolved by water that contain acids - where acids are more concentrated, the weathering is more extreme
Advection fog
Forms when warm air passes over a cold surface
Agro-technology
The technology used in agriculture to increase the volume of food produced
Air masses
Winds that blow regularly and have uniform characteristics over a horizontal distance of thousands of kilometers. Air masses are categorised according to their temperature and humidity
Akle dunes
Long sinuous ridges formed when there is plenty of sand. Common in the western Sahara
Albedo
The proportion of solar radiation reflected from areas of the earths surface
Alluvial fan
A triangle shaped deposit of gravel, sand and silt built up by streams, created where the water moving through the mountains or hills abruptly decreases in velocity
Antecedent conditions
The conditions that exist before a precipitation event
Aquifers
Formation of porous rock that store underground water. They are vital to facilitate irrigation for farming and for supplies of drinking water
Arcuate delta
A fan-shaped delta where the river mouth splits many times on the way to the sea
3D jobs
Dirty, Difficult or dangerous jobs. Unpopular
Area of assimilation
Parts of a city’s central business district where offices are converted to residential use or houses are turned into offices
Area of discard
Parts of the CBD where old buildings that can no longer by used are demolished
Aridisols
Soils that are usually saline or alkaline with little organic matter and little moisture. Typically found in deserts
Arroyos
A wadi used in south-western USA, a dry watercourse in an arid region
Asthenosphere
The upper layer of the earths mantle, below the lithosphere which is estimated to be between 85 and several hundred kilometers in depth
Aspect
In geology, the direction a slope faces as defined by compass bearing
Atmospheric counter-radiation
When the terrestrial radiation that is absorbed by water vapour, CO2 and other gases in the atmosphere heats up and is returned as counter-radiation to the ground
Attrition
When boulders and large stones carried by a river or by the ocean back into each other and break up into smaller pieces
Bajada
A series of merging alluvial fans along a mountain front
Balance of trade
The difference between a country’s imports and exports
Barchans
Crescent-shaped sand dunes formed in desert regions where the wind direction is very constant; wind blowing round the edges of the dunes cause the crescent shape, while the dunes may advance in a downward direction as particles are blown over the crests
Base flow
The water flowing in a stream that is fed only by groundwater; during dry periods it is only the base flow that passes through the stream channel
Base level
The lowest point to which a river can flow; sea level is usually the base level for large rivers but a large river is often the base level for its tributary streams
Batholiths
Large areas of igneous rock that have been formed underneath the surface of the earth by magma intruding and solidifying; between 10 and 15km deep
Bedload
Particles that are transported by water along a riverbed
Benioff zone
A downwards sloping contact zone situated beneath a destructive plate boundary where oceanic plates or ocean-continental plates converge - when they collide earthquakes occur
Berm
Another word for a raised barrier composed of shingle and sand created by wave action
Bhopal disaster
Took place in India at a pesticide factory owned by American company Union Carbide; a gas leak exposed the local population to toxic gas and chemicals killing an estimated 3000 people and injuring half a million
Bid rent theory
States that the price and demand for property and land changes as its distance from the CBD increases
Bill and Melinda Gates foundation
Founded in 2000 this is the biggest private foundation in the world and it engages in poverty reduction, expanding education opportunities for the most disadvantaged people in the world and enhancing healthcare provision
Bioconstruction
The colonisation of mudflats by vegetation that can withstand high salinity and water submergence; the vegetation forms a mat that creates friction between the waves and the salt marsh, which makes the waves slow down and deposit more material on the salt marsh
Biodiversity
The diversity of plant and animal life in a particular habitat, geographic region or in the world
Biomass
The total mass of living organisms both plant and animal in a given area
Birds foot delta
A delta where the river splits off into fingers that jut out into the sea
Birth rate
The total number of live births in a year for every 1000 people
Block disintegration
Large blocks of rock that break into smaller blocks of rock
Bluff
The slightly raised line that marks the edge of a floodplain
Bottomset beds
Sediment made up of fine silt and clay deposited in a delta by a river; the finest sediment is carried the furthest by the river
Break-of bulk
Unloading a portion or all of a shipment at a particular location
Buttes
Relatively small outliers of mesas
Calcile
The hard protective limestone skeleton of a coral polyp; this forms the structure of a coral reef
Capacity
In rivers the load that can be theoretically carried given the velocity of the river flow
Capillary migration
Water at the surface evaporates and this draws up more water from the depths that can exceed 3m; when this water evaporated at the surface it leaves salts
Capital intensive
In agriculture, the use of mechanical goods like machinery, tools, vehicles and factories to produce large amount of agricultural goods with minimal human labour
Carbonation
The process where carbon dioxide often from rainwater, produces carbonic acid which dissolves rock
Carrying capaciry
The maximum number of species that the resources in an environment in a given area can sustain
Cavitation
A type of hydraulic action where collapsing air bubbles create small shock waves call cavitation
Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Set up by the government of India in 1952; finds ways to stabilise shifting sand dunes, limit deforestation and renew degraded forests
Chain mirgration
When people migrate to a particular place because they have family connections there, friends as social networks or because people of the same nationality already live there
Channel flow
The name given to water moving through a defined channel
Channel storage
Water contained within a river channel or stream
Chelation
A bio-chemical weathering process; organisms produce chelates that can decompose minerals and rocks by removing metallic cations
Circular migration
Where a migrant repeats a circular journey between their home and host areas usually in search of employment
Coastal squeeze
The name for what happens to a coastal area that is squeezed between a man-made land-based boundary like a sea wall and an ocean that is storm prone or rising in level; the squeezed coastal environment is trapped and begins to deteriorate
Coastal zone management
Managing coastal areas so that human activities, economic needs and environmental priorities are balanced
Cold currents
An ocean current that carries water from the poles towards the equator, taking cold polar water into warmer seas
Competence
The maximum size of material that a river is capable or transporting
Command economy
Government, rather than market, control of the production of goods and services
Commercial farming
Farming crops for sale and profit, including livestock with the use of modern technology
Commodification
To give something a price
Common agricultural policy
The policy of the EU to support and subsidise certain crops and methods of animal husbandry
Concentric zone model
Theoretical model to explain social structures particularly social groupings in cities and their location in relation to the CBD which lies at the centre of the model with the most affluent groups of people living in the lest locations
Condensation level
The height at which a body of air reaches the dew point
Condensation nuclei
The name given to the particle of salt, soot or dust needed for raindrops to form around in order to achieve droplets
Condense
The process by which cooling vapour turns into liquid
Conservative migration
When people migrate to preserve a certain standard of living
Continental climate
Places that have seasons because they have annual variations in temperature
Continentality
The climes of places far from the sea
Convection currents
Heat from the earths core is carried up to the mantle through convection currents; the currents move around destroying the crust in some places and creating new crust in other places
Convectional
The name given to rain formed by hot ground heating the air above it, making this air less dense causing it to rise. As the air cools to below the dew point the water vapour condenses and falls as water droplets
Convergent
Plates that move towards each other. Where 2 continental plates move together and collide, large mountain ranges are formed. Where a continental plate converges with an oceanic plate volcanoes are common and a subduction zone is formed
Coral bleaching
When the symbiotic relationship between the coral and the zooanthellae breaks down, the coral loses its colour. This happens when the temperature of the water increases
Core-periphery concept
Developed in 1963 the concept looks at development and states that core cities, regions or countries develop faster than periphery areas because they have physical or human advantages
Coriolis force
A force exerted by the earths rotation that causes moving objects to move the the right in the northern hemisphere and the the left in the southern hemisphere. It is responsible for the direction for movement in various weather events like hurricanes
Corrasion
When sand and stones carries by a river rub against the riverbank and riverbed and knock off other particles (also called abrasion)
Corrosion
When acids in a river dissolve the ricks that make up the bank and riverbed
Counter-stream
Migration that moves in the direction opposite to a migrant stream
Counterurbanisation
The movement of people from urban areas to rural areas
Cultural clashes
When differences between cultures lead people to misunderstand or resent each other
Cuspate delta
A delta where material from the river is evenly spread on either side of the channel so as the river meets the sea the land around the mouth of the river forms a shape like the head of an arrow jutting into the sea
Cutoff
Another name for an oxbow lake
Death rate
The total number of deaths in a year (for every 1000 people)
Debris avalanche
A sudden landslide of hot or cold material from the side of an unstable steep-sided mountain
Deflation
Loose particles picked up by the wind and carried away, causing erosion
Deflation hollows
Hollows in rock left by deflation
Deflocculation
The dispersal of particles that had been stuck together
Deglomerating
The process of breaking a large mass up into smaller parts
Deindustrialisation
The process of decline and removal of heavy industry from a country or region
Demography
The statistical study of human populations using information about areas such as births, deaths, disease and income
Dendritic
The name given to a drainage pattern that looks like a tree, with water converging from several directions before it joins the main channel
Dependent variable
The variable that is being measure and whose value depends on that of another
Dependency ratio
The ratio of dependents to the working age population
Desertification
Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities
Dew
When water on the Earth’s surface condenses fue to atmospheric cooling it form droplets of water known as dew
Dew point
The temperature at which the atmosphere being cooled becomes saturated with water vapur
Dissolved load
The process by which small dissolved sediments and minerals are transported within a river (also called solution)
Distal
The end furthest away from the attached end or the centre
Diurnal range
The difference between the highest and the lowest temperature in a 24 hour period
Divergent
In plate tectonics, plates that move away from each other, both on land and as sea floor spreading
Divided bar graphs
A graph in the form of either horizontal or vertical bars which illustrate the size of values
Doha Amendment
An amendment to the Kyoto Protocol which commits signatory nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2020
Dragging theory
Another name for slab-pull mechanism
Duricrusts
Formed by the evaporation of groundwater - this gives a hard mineral crust near the soil’s surface; usually found in semi-arid areas
Dune slacks
The area in the dip between sand dunes
Dust devil
A small whirlwind or air vortex over land, visible as a column of dust and debris
Dynamic equilibrium
A lack of change in a system as inputs and outputs remain in balance
Economies of scale
The economic advantage gained by producing larger quantities of goods - this is because the fixed costs of each item produced is reduced if the cost of production is spread over a larger number of goods
Ecotourism
Tourism that is concerned with the support and conservation of natural environments, local economy and local society
Edge city
A mostly American term for a relatively large area of businesses, shopping and entertainment situated on the outskirts of a city in what was previously a residential area
Effective precipitation
The percentage of rainfall that becomes available to plants and crops
Emerging market
An economy that is moving from a low income per person to a middle income per person
Embryo dunes
The youngest sand dunes that sit nearest the shoreline at the front of the dunes on a beach
Emigrants
People who leave a country
Emigration
The act of leaving one’s country to go and live permanently in another country
Endorheic
Relating to interior drainage basins
Energy mix
The energy consumption of a household, region or country; includes both renewable and non-renewable energy sources
Enhanced greenhouse effect
The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere caused by an excess of carbon dioxide which acts like a blanket preventing the natural escape of heat
Entrenched meanders
Will developed symmetrical meanders that form in a river when the rivers base level falls, allowing the river to quickly vertically erode leaving little time for later erosion
Epidemiological transition
The name given to a sudden increase in population due to improvements in medicine; often followed by a drop in fertility rates, leading to a re-levelling of population growth
Equatorial low pressure belt
The area of low pressure found at or near the equator
Ester Boserup
A Danish agricultural economist who believes that population determines agricultural methods
Erg
A broad large area of sand
Eustatic fall
A drop in sea level related to changes in the volume of seawater in the oceans or because of a change in the shape of an ocean basin which affects how much water the ocean can hold
Eustatic rise
A rise in sea level related to changes in the volume of seawater in the oceans
Event modifications
Actions that limit the ability of a flood the cause damage and impact on peoples lives
Evaporation
The change of state from water droplets to water vapour caused by heating
Evapotranspiration
Loss of water into the atmosphere from plants and water surfaces
Excavation
The removal of material such as rocks and soil to obtain access to underlying layer of the Earth’s surface
Exfoliation
A form of weathering whereby the outer layers of rock or boulder shear off due to the alternate expansion and contraction produced by diurnal heating and cooling
Exogenous
Something that originates externally
Falling limb
The part of a hydrograph that shows the river discharge decreasing and water levels moving back towards base level
Fertility rate
The number of children that would be born alive to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years
Fetch
The name given to the potential distance a wave can travel
Financial capital
The funds available to a business for investment
Fixed capital
The money a business invests in items that are fixed
Fixed costs
Costs that remain the same regardless of how many items of a product are manufactured
Fixed dunes
Sand dunes that are grey in appearance, immobile and support most plant life of any found on dunes as a result of their richer soil
Flash floods
Sudden flooding in low-lying areas
Flocculation
The process of saltwater and freshwater mixing which causes tiny clay particles to stick together into larger masses; these masses are too heavy to stay suspended in water so they sink to the seabed
Fog
When the air becomes saturated with water droplets resulting in the reduction of visibility near the surface of the Earth
Fold mountains
Mountains that have been formed by large-scale and complex folding
Footlosse industries
An industry that is free to choose any location
Forced migration
When people are made to leave a country
Foreset beds
Deposits of medium-size particles of sediment that are carried less far than the finest sediment but further than the coarsest material
Free migration
When people migrate in order to improve their circumstances and life chances
Friable
Something with a crumbly texture that can easily be broken into smaller pieces
Front
A boundary between two air masses
Frontal
The name given to rain that is the result of warm air meeting cold air; the lighter warm air is forces up over the cold air and the line where the wam air and cold air meet is called a front
Frontal fog
Forms when warm air meets cold air at a front
Frontier Five
A group name for Bangladesh, Nigeria, Peru, Vietnam and Oman; poised to experience significant economic growth
Frontier market
Developing countries with slower economies and less established stock markets
Fulls
Another name for sand ridges on a beach
Gender analysis
Examines the different roles of men and women in migration and how sex discrimination affects migration
Geostationary satellites
Satellites that travel in a circular orbit around the earth over the equator at an altitude of about 35800km. They travel once around earth every day so they appear ot be stationary
Geothermal energy
Heat from the Earth or stored in the Earth
Global shift
The movement of manufacturing from HIC’s to MIC’s and LIC’s by TNC’s seeking cheaper labour and less regulated business environments
Global warming
A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
Gradient
The measure of steepness of a slope
Granular disintegration
When rock breaks into fine particles
Gravitational model
Explains why migrants settle for a location that is not their intended location; the number of migrants moving from one town to another is related to the opportunities available at the final destination but inversely proportional to the number of opportunities that present themselves along the way, before they get to their intended destination
Green belt
Land surrounding urban areas that is protected so that it cannot be built on
Greenfield
Undeveloped land in urban or rural locations used for farming, grazing or left to lie fallow
Green Revolution
The series of technological and research advances that took place in the 1940’s that increased the efficiency of farms
Groundwater flow
The part of streamflow that has infiltrated the ground, entered the phreatic zone and has been discharged into the stream channel through springs or seepage
Groundwater recharge
The restocking of groundwater with surface water
Groundwater storage
Water stored in the pores and spaces of underlying bedrock
Haffs
Long shallow lagoons; separated from the open sea by a narrow sandbar
Halophytes
Plants that can live in saline areas
Harbin explosion
On 13th November, 2005 there was an explosion at a petrochemical plant in China which caused 100 tonnes of toxins to enter to Songhua River
Heat transfer
The transfer of heat from one place or object to another
Heave
The name given to a type of mass movement of downhill weathered rock material; this movement is characterised by a slow expansion and subsequent movement of debris to the surface perpendicular to the slope
Helicoidal flow
A corkscrew-like river flow associated with the formation of sediment bars and slip-off slopes; mainly found as water travels around river bends
High income countries
Countries that have a high income according to the world bank’s world development indicators
Hill fog
Forms when air is forced to rise up a slope and cools
Holistic
An approach that views the whole as being more important that a focus on just a few individual parts
Honeycomb weathering
Another name for pitting
Hotspots
Volcanic areas fed by underlying magma often found near tectonic plate boundaries
Hoyt’s sector theory
He placed the CBD at the centre of the model and observed that as differences in function occurred in the growing city variations tended to endure
Human development index
A measurement of a country’s achievements in 3 areas:
Life expectancy at birth
Adult literacy rate and enrolment ratio
GDP per person
HWN
The spring tide high water mark
Hydration
The ability of something to absorb water
Hydraulic action
The erosive force of water alone; as distinct from corrasion; a river or sea will erode partially by the sheer force of moving water
Hydraulic fracturing
A process that extracts oil and gas from shale rock by drilling deep into the earth and then forcing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand and chemicals into the rock to bring the gas or oil stored there to the surface
Hydrolysis
A reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water. Mainly occurs between a hydrogen ion in water molecules and often changes in pH of a solution
Hygroscopic nuclei
The name given to the microscopic particles of salt, soot or dust onto which water vapour can condense to from rain
Hyper capital-intensive
A business that needs large quantities of money to produce a service or a product
Igneous rocks
Rocks formed when magma cools and solidifies
Immigrants
People arriving in a new country
Immigration
The movement of people into a country or region from other countries or regions
Impelled migration
When people believe that they are under physical or human threat and they respond by leaving an area in an effort to ensure their safety
Impermeable
Something that cannot be penetrated by water
In-migration
To move around one’s own country to settle in a new location
Incised meanders
Another name for entrenched meanders
Independent variable
A variable that is manipulated or changed
Index of multiple deprivation
Calculated y combining a number of domains relating to employment, income, education and skills, health, crime, barriers to housing and services and living environment; each domain is given a score, each score is weighted and then added together to produce the overall level of multiple deprivation
Industrial inertia
When an industry does not relocate even though the original reasons for choosing the site are no longer applicable
Innovative migration
When people migrate in order to improve their standard of living
Infant mortality rate
The number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births
Unter-annual variability
The difference in precipitation from one year to the next
Interception
Water that is caught and stored by vegetation
Interception loss
Water that is retained by plants
Intergovernmental panel on climate change
A scientific intergovernmental body set up by the UN in 1988
International migration
People moving from one country to another
Intertropical convergence zone
An area of low atmospheric pressure and ascending air found near or at the equator; global winds converge here and rise thanks to convection from thermal heating
Internal migration
People relocating within a country
Intervening obstacles
Things that happen to stop migrants from getting to their original destination
Inverse distance law
The volume of migrants decreases with the distance from the origin
Irrigation
Artificially diverting water to fields to grow crops
Island arc
A line of volcanoes situated on islands that sit above an oceanic-oceanic subducting plate and form the shape of an arc
Knowledge economy
An economy based on the use of information to create wealth
Kuznets curve
In environmental economics, proposes that as a country develops economically levels of pollution decrease
Kyoto protocol
An international treaty that extended the UN framework convention on climate change and committed signatory nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2012
Lag time
The amount of time between peak rainfall and peak river discharge
Lahar
A type of destructive mudflow or debris flow which contains a mix of volcanic rock fragments and water flowing rapidly downhill on the slopes of a volcano
Laminar flow
A flow of river that is a smooth horizontal motion; unusual because natural river environments are characterised by complex condition such as gradients
Landslide hazard analysis
The analysis of all types of landslides using computer mapping and geographic information systems
Land use
The function of an area of land
Latent heat
The energy released when a material changes state; measures the change in internal energy that appears to be hidden from a thermometer
Lateral planation
Rivers swing from side to side eroding the surface, causing lateral planation
Leaf drop
Water that travels through the plant canopy by running down and off leaves and twigs
Life expectancy
The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life
Line haul costs
The cost to a business of moving goods from one place to another
Lithosphere
The hard and rigid outer surface of the solid earth
Littoral cells
Another name for sediment cells
Long-wave radiation
The infrared energy radiating from the earth to space
Loss-sharing adjustments
Mechanisms designed to help cope with flooding
Low income countries
Countries that have a low income according to the world bank’s world development indicators
Lunette
The name of a small sand dune formed in the lee of a deflation hollow
LWM
The spring tide low water mark
Maritime climate
Places where the land is affected by the close proximity of an ocean, which lowers temperature of the area during the summer and keeps it warmer in winter
Marxist theory
Argues that migration is one of the results of capitalism
Mesas
Flat-topped isolated hills in arid regions; have a protective cap of hard rock underlain by softer, more readily eroded sedimentary rock
Mass migration
When large numbers of people, sometimes whole communities, move as one to a new location. Can also apply to mass tourism when large numbers of people go the the same resort at the same time of year
Metamorphic rocks
Rocks that have been changed by intense heat or pressure, often accompanies by an increase in hardness and resistance to erosion
Mid-latitude depressions
Weather systems that result from frontal rain in mid-latitudes
Middle income countries
Countries that have a middle income according to the world bank’s world development indicators
Migrant stream
A pattern of migration established by a group of people with common characteristics
Mountain building
The building of mountains or continents due to the interaction of tectonic plates, principally subduction
Mudflow
The name given to a type of mass movement of downhill weathered rock material; distorts and shapes to the land over which it travels like a viscous liquid and the rate of flow is influenced by gravity
Multiple nuclei theory
Theory of urban structure challenged the idea that a city developed around a single central nucleus rather than a number of separate nuclei
National parks
Areas of scenic countryside protected by law form uncontrolled development in order to conserve the natural beauty of the landscape and to enable the public to visit and enjoy the countryside for leisure and recreation
Natural increase
Calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate
Nebkha
The name given to a small sand dune in the shelter of the lee of a bush
Negative externalities
Costs that third parties have to bear when a product is made or consumed
Nehrungs
Sand splits that can be many kilometres in length
Newly industrialised countries
Countries that are developing their economies through rapid expansion of secondary industries
Next eleven
Countries that have a good change of becoming the world’s largest economies in the 21st century
Nomadic systems
Where farmers move to different locations in search of the best climatic conditions for farming crops and grazing animals
Ocean conveyor belt
This process begins in the polar regions with the formation of ice - the surrounding water gets saltier because the creation of the ice leaves salt behind which increases the seawater’s density making it sink; surface water is then pulled in to replace the sinking water which in turn becomes colder and saltier and also sinks initiating the currents deep in the ocean that power the ocean conveyor belt
Oceanic tranches
Deep-sea trenches that form long narrow depressions in the surface of the seafloor along a tectonic plate boundary
Open system
A system that transfers energy and matter across its boundaries to the surrounding area
Organisation for economic co-operation and development
Works to promote policies that aim to improve the economic and social wellbeing of people all over the world
Orogenesis
Another name for mountain building
Orographic
The name given to precipitation that is the result of air being forced upwards by a mountain - as the air cools to below the dew point water vapour condenses into water droplets
Out-migration
To leave an area and settle in a new location within one’s own country
Overland flow
The movement of precipitation from high ground to lower ground over the surface
Oxbow lake
A crescent shaped lake originating in a meander that was abandoned when erosion breached the neck between bends, allowing the stream to flow straight on, bypassing the meander; the ends of the meander rapidly silt up and it becomes separated from the river
Oxidation
The breakdown of rock by oxygen and water when the rock is exposed to air. Iron-rich rocks will often obtain a rusty-coloured weathered surface
Pastoral nomadism
Farmers who travel to different locations in search of grazing land and water for livestock
Peak flow
The maximum river discharge for any given event in cubic metres per second
Pedimentation
The name given to the parallel retreat over time of a hillslope
Peeling
Another name for exfoliation
People trafficking
The trade in people; people who are trafficked are sold into sexual exploitation or forced labour
Permeable
Something that can be penetrated by water
Phreatic zone
The part of an aquifer found just beneath the water table that is saturated with water
Phreatophytes
Plants that have root systems that delve deep into the ground to draw water from the water table
Piemont zone
The zone at the foot of a mountain covered in loose stones, rock, dust and sand and featuring playas, salt lakes and inselbergs
Pitting
A type of salt weathering that creates cavities in a rock surface that make the surface look aerated
Planar landslides
Happen when weathered rock becomes detached from the main body of a rock along a plane or joint
Playa
The name given to a salt lake that has dried out
Pleistocene pluvials
Landlocked basins that date from the Pleistocene geological epoch
Pluvial
A period marked by intense rainfall
Point bars
Another name for slip-off slopes
Polar high pressure system
The area of high pressure found at or near poles
Positive externalities
When the manufacture or consumption of a product benefits a third party
Positive net migration balance
More people entering a country than leaving
Post-industrial cities
Cities that have gone through the process of deindustrialisation
Practical salinity units
The measure of salt concentration in seawater
Precipitation
Water deposited on the Earth’s surface in various forms
Primary data
Data that is collected first-hand for a specific reason
Primitive
The migration of nomadic people due to seasonal or climatic factors
Principles of migration
Examines external push factors and pull factors
Process industries
Industries that process raw materials into other products
Pro-poor tourism
Tourism that provides net benefits for poor people thanks to the support of their local economy
Proximal
Another name for updrift
Pseudo bedding planes
Structures in igneous rock that look like bedding planes but are not bedding planes; caused by expansion of the rock on pressure release due to erosion of the surface rock
Qualitative research
Primary exploratory research that looks at trends, opinions and people’s thoughts on a particular subject
Quantitative research
Data that expresses an issue or problem in numbers
Radial
The name given to a drainage pattern where water drains away from a central high point
Radiation fog
Forms when the ground has cooled due to radiation from the ground
Rain shadow
The relatively dry area on the leeward side of high ground in the path of rain-bearing winds
Recession
Another name for falling limb
Regolith
The layer of loose broken rock, soil and other material that covers solid rock
Relative humidity
The amount of water vapour in the air expressed as a percentage of the amount that would be present if the air was saturated
Rectangular drianage
The name given to a drainage pattern where a river or stream follows geological weaknesses and gaps in block-like bedrock
Repeat migration
Another name for circular migration
Resource curse theory
Where countries with valuable natural resources do not prosper economically because they fail to invest in other areas of the economy
Rias
Submerged river valleys caused by a rise in sea level or subsidence of the land relative to the sea
Rising limb
On a hydrograph, the part of the graph that initially rises, indicating the increasing level of water as determined by the combined rate of surface runoff, throughflow and groundwater flow following a precipitation event
River discharge
The amount of mobile volume of water moving in a river
River regime
The annual variations in a river’s flow over the period of a year
Rockfalls
Sudden movements of rock from cliff faces caused by gravity, chemical erosion, coastal action, earth movements, weathering or freeze-thaw action
Rotational slides
A type of landslide that occurs on a curved failed surface causing the upper surface to tilt back
Sabkhas
Coastal salt flats subject to occasional flooding by the sea
Saltation
The transport of sediment by water along a riverbed
Scarp
The steep side of an inselberg
Seasonal lag
The delay between the hottest or coldest month of the year and the point at which it is experienced on earth; the delay is caused by the sea taking a long time to either heat ip or cool down
Saturated
When something holds as much water or moisture as it is possible for it to absorb
Secondary data
Data collected by someone else
Sediment cells
Erosion, transportation and deposition take place within sediment cells and they are closed systems which means that no sediment is transferred between cells
Sedimentary rocks
Rock formed by the consolidation of sediment derived from pre-existing rocks
Seif dunes
Sand dunes that run in straightish ridges parallel to the wind; they are caused by either of 2 main wind direction or by helical-roll vortices
Seismometers
Instruments that measure movement in the ground created by events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
Semi-fixed dunes
Sand dunes that are less bare, less mobile and more fertile than embryo dunes but not as fixed or fertile as a fixed or grey dune
Sensible heat
The is the heat we can feel
Sensible heat transfer
When air or water moves from one place to another, taking its temperature with it
Sharecropping
A type of land use where a tenant farmer cultivates land owned by someone else. A percentage of the crops grown on the land is then given to the landowner as rent for the land
Shifting cultivation
A type of land use characterised by farming one area of land until it is no longer fertile then moving to a new area of land. Also known as swidden
Shoreline management plans
Plans that assess the risks to a coastline and then set out details of policies that can manage these risks
Short-wave radiation
The visible light and ultraviolet energy radiation from the sun to earth
Slab-pull mechanism
The motion of a part of a tectonic plate by subduction; this happens when the oldest edge of a tectonic plate, furthest from the molten magma becomes cooler and more solid and sinks into the mantle; also known as dragging theory
Slide
The name given to a type of mass movement of downhill weathered rock material; this movement takes place in a cohesive unit with minimal internal dislocation and deformation
Slip-off slope
A sloping bar located on the inside bank of a meander; created by the accumulation of sediment on the inside of the meander bend, where discharge is at a minimum and friction and deposition are at their greatest
Slope overloading
When a slope becomes overloaded with material such as mud, earth and rubbish, which increases the pressure on the slope causing it to fail
Slope stability analysis
The analysis of the safety of a slope
Smog
An air pollutant which is a combination of fog and smoke typically found in urban areas
Soil croop
A slow movement of soil that takes place on very gentle slopes due to the way soil particles expand at right angles in wet condition and contract vertically in dry conditions
Solution
The process by which small dissolved sediments and minerals are transported within a river
Specific heat capacity
A measure of the thermal energy contained in an object or substance
Spits
Low marrow banks of sand and shingle built out into an estuary by the process of longshore drift
Standardisation
To set a standard and then make everything meet that standard; can apply to objects
Star dunes
Sand dunes in the shape of a star
Stemflow
Water that runs down the trunk and branches of a tree into the ground
Step migration
A series of migrations from a person’s place of origin where each stage of migration is a shorter journey than one long-distance migration; they gradually move towards the migrants initial goal destination or sometimes migrants remain at a location on the way to their final destination
Stone pavements
The landscape formed when rainwater causes chemical weathering of limestone, enlarging the natural bedding planes and joints to form blocks
Storm flow
The additional discharge experienced by a river as a result of precipitation events
Structural engineering
The design, construction and implementation of man-made structures that air the stability of the landscape
Structuration theory
A social theory of migration that looks at individual motives for migration and at the structural and cultural factors and rules within which migrants have to operate
Succlent
When plants with thick fleshy leaves or stems adapted to storing water in arid climates or soil condition
Subduction zone
Where the oceanic crust of a tectonic plate is forced under the continental crust and sinks into the mantle as the plates converge. Occurs where 2 oceanic plates converge
Sublimation
The transition of a substance directly from a solid to a gas without passing through the intermediate liquid phase
Sub-tropical high pressure belt
The area of high pressure found 30 degrees north and south of the equator
Sub-tropical jet stream
A high speed narrow air current; it moves in a westerly direction at a height of between 10 and 15 km and follows the boundaries between hot and cold air
Surface creep
Where sand grains are pushed along the surface of the desert causing erosion
Surface storage
Any part of a system where water lies above ground on the earth’s surface
Suspended load
The portion of the stream load carried suspended in the flowing water
Suspension
Where the lightest sand particles, dust and dirt are carried along by strong winds or water
Sustainable resource management
Management of an environment that takes into account issues such as waste disposal and the protection of natural resources
Swales
Long, narrow and shallow troughs between ridges on beaches, run parallel to the coastline
Swell
The name given to waves that are generated by the wind and are not significantly affected by local winds
Technology transfer initiatives
The sharing of technical knowledge and skills
Temperate low pressure belt
The area of low pressure found at or near the temperate zone
Terminal costs
Another name for fixed costs
Terrestrial deposition
The process of sediments, soil and socks being added to land
Terrestrial radiation
Short-wave radiation energy coming from the sun heats the ground and is then reradiated as infrared long-wave radiation
Thalweg
The line of deepest water-the path of least resistance where water flows the fastest
Thermohaline circulation
Seawater currents that reflect variations in temperature and salt content
Throughfall
Water that travels through the p[lant canopy by running down and off leaves, twigs and stems
Throughflow
The name given to the process of water flowing though the soil substrata
Tombolo
A spit which extends to join an island to the mainland
Topset beds
Coarse material carried by a river into a delta; the coarsest material is carried the shortest distance
Traction
The transport of large items such as stones and boulders along a riverbed by the strong flow of moving water
Trade blocs
Groups of countries that agree to trade with each other and to exclude countries that they do not have trade agreements with
Trade winds
Surface winds in the tropics that blow from the sub-tropical high pressure zone to the equator. Trade winds in the Northern hemisphere move from the northwest to the southwest and are called Northeast trades. Trade winds in the Southern hemisphere flow from the southeast to the northwest and are called the Southeast trades
Transform
Plates that move past each other side by side often causing earthquakes
Transpiration
The loss of water from the somata and pores of vegetation into the atmosphere
Trellised
The drainage pattern where streams follow slopes downhill and converge along areas of eroded rock
Turbulent flow
A river flow characterised by a series of erratic horizontal and vertical spiral flows influenced by factors such as the velocity of the water and the friction it encounters
Urban heat island
The name given to the phenomenon of urban areas being warmer than the rural areas that surround them
Unit labour costs
The amount of money a firm needs to pay its staff to make one unit of one thing. A low unit labour coast means that it costs less to produce one unit of a product
United national environment programme
An agency of the UN concerned with issues to do with the atmosphere, ecosystems, the green economy and environmental governance. It promotes environmental science and works with governments to develop and implement environmental policy
United national framework convention on climate change
An international climate change treaty dating from 1992 that aims to stabilise greenhouse gas concentration in earth’s atmosphere by bringing pressure on the 165 signatory nations to reduce emissions
Unroofed
Upper layers of rock erode and allow layers of roof to relax and crack
Unsaturated
Something with remaining capacity to hold water
Updrift
An area where coastal material, such as sand, is deposited on a beach further along a coastline
Vegetation storage
Moisture stored by vegetation directly through the root system
Volcanoes
Fissures in the earth’s crust through which magma reaches the earth’s surface. The 4 main types of volcano are:
acid lava cone - a very steep-sided cone composed entirely of acidic, viscous lava which flows slowly and congeals very quickly
composite volcano - a single cone comprising alternate layers of ash and lava
fissure volcano - a volcano that erupts along a linear fissure in the crust rather than from a single point
shield volcano - a volcano composed of very basic, non-viscous lava that flows quickly and congeals slowly, producing a gently sloping cone
Warm currents
An ocean current that carries water from the equator polewards, taking warm water into colder seas
Water balance
The balance between the input of precipitation and losses due to evaporation and transpiration by plants
Watershed
The boundary between 2 river basins
Waves f oscillation
Inside the wave water molecules travel in a circular to elliptical orbit and do not move with the wave form; mainly deep sea waves
Waves of translation
Inside the wave water molecules move forward with the wave form on the shoreline where the waves break
Wind-shadow dune
The name given to a sand dune that forms in the lee of a hill
Xerophytes
Plants that so not need a lot of water
Yardangs
Long, roughly parallel ridges of rock in arid and semi-arid regions. The ridges are undercut by wind erosion and the corridors between them are swept clear of sand by the wind; the ridges are orientated in the direction of the prevailing wind
Yazoo trubutary
A tributary that runs parallel to a river within the same valley for some distance before eventually joining it
Yellow dunes
Found after embryo dune appear on a beach, yellow dunes develop behind them
Zeugen
Pedestal rocks in arid regions; wind erosion is concentrated near the ground where corrasion by wind-borne sand is most active - leads to undercutting and a pedestal profile emerges
