Unit 7 Flashcards
memory
the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system.
storage
the retention of encoded information over time.
retrieval
the process of getting formation out of memory.
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection- memory of how to do something, such as riding a bike.
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of the incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.
Semantic Encoding
The encoding of meaning.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
cerebellum
the back of the brain that stores implicit memories.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapses’ firing potential after brief, rapids stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
Primacy Effect
Remembering items at the beginning of a list.
Recency Effect
Remembering items at the end of a list.
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of old information on new information.
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new information on old information.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
deja vu
the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.
insight
a sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem.
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contrary evidence.
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct–to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
semantics
the set of rules used in grammar by which we derive meaning from the sentence.
syntax
the rules used in grammar for combining words and the order of words for the sentence to make sense.
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.
linguistic determinism
the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
Broca’s area
helps control language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic influence
the weaker form of “linguistic relativity”—the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language).
