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Bio honor > Unit 6 > Flashcards

Unit 6 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 stages of the cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, M

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2
Q

What is happening during G1 and G2?

A

G1: Cell growth and preparation for DNA replication. G2: Preparation for mitosis and error checking.

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3
Q

What is happening during S?

A

DNA replication occurs.

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4
Q

What is happening during M?

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis occur, leading to cell division.

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5
Q

How many checkpoints are there and in what phases do they occur?

A

Three checkpoints: G1, G2, and M phase.

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6
Q

What does it mean when a cell stays in G0?

A

It exits the cycle and does not divide, often becoming a specialized cell.

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7
Q

What does it mean when the cell cycle keeps going uncontrollably?

A

It can lead to cancer due to unchecked cell division.

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8
Q

How many cell cycle turns (doubling of cells) does it take to make a 36 trillion cell human?

A

About 46 divisions.

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9
Q

What do mutations in checkpoints tend to lead to?

A

Cancer and other cell cycle-related diseases.

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10
Q

What is an example of liquid cancer? What do we call a solid clump of cancer cells?

A

Leukemia (liquid cancer), Tumor (solid cancer).

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11
Q

What stage of the cell cycle does Mitosis take place in?

A

M phase.

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12
Q

Distinguish Mitosis from cytokinesis.

A

Mitosis: Nuclear division. Cytokinesis: Cytoplasmic division.

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13
Q

By initials, what are the 4 stages of Mitosis?

A

P, M, A, T (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

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14
Q

What happens during prophase to the DNA, nuclear membrane, and the centrosome spindle fibers?

A

DNA condenses, nuclear membrane breaks down, spindle fibers form.

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15
Q

What grows out of the centrosomes?

A

Microtubules.

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16
Q

What protein does DNA supercoil on to? How many times does it coil upon itself to form a chromosome?

A

Histones; Coils 5 times

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17
Q

If we say a chromosome looks like the letter “H,” what are the two long vertical segments? What is the horizontal bridge between the two long segments?

A

Chromatids; Centromere.

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18
Q

How many chromosomes do chimpanzees have? Fruit Flies? Walking Catfish?

A

48, 8, 54.

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19
Q

How do you know if a cell is in metaphase?

A

Chromosomes are aligned in the middle.

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20
Q

How do you know if a cell is in anaphase?

A

Sister chromatids are pulled apart.

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21
Q

What happens during telophase to the chromosomes, nuclear membrane, centrosome spindle fibers, and the cell in general?

A

Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane reforms, spindle fibers break down, cell prepares for cytokinesis.

22
Q

What is the protein on the centromere that the microtubules attach to?

A

Kinetochore.

23
Q

In animals, what is in the middle of a centrosome? Plants don’t have them. What is responsible for microtubule growth in a centrosome?

A

Centrioles; Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs).

24
Q

What is the official name of a fertilized egg?

A

Zygote.

25
Q

What is the name of the 16-cell stage of embryogenesis after the fertilization of the egg cell? What type of stem cells are those 16 cells? What can they make that other stem cells cannot make?

A

Morula; Totipotent; Placenta.

26
Q

What do we call the “hollow ball” of cells stage? What type of stem cells are they?

A

Blastocyst; Pluripotent.

27
Q

What do we call the stage where all the cell tissues are present? What do we call those stem cells?

A

Gastrula; Multipotent.

28
Q

What are the three tissue layers?

A

Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm.

29
Q

Distinguish what body parts are made of the outer, middle, and inner tissues.

A

Outer: Skin, Nervous System; Middle: Muscle, Bones, Blood; Inner: Digestive and Respiratory Systems.

30
Q

How many changes do you have to make to a skin cell to reprogram it into a pluripotent stem cell?

A

Four genetic changes.

31
Q

Planaria have lots of stem cells. What type of stem cells are they? What do we call them?

A

Pluripotent; Neoblasts.

32
Q

How would you describe the regenerative abilities of a Planaria?

A

They can regenerate entire bodies from small fragments.

33
Q

What can you use to reprogram a Planaria to grow 2 heads instead of a tail (note: you do not change the genes)?

A

Disrupting the Wnt signaling pathway.

34
Q

What is the shape of DNA?

A

Double helix.

35
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

36
Q

What are the 4 nucleotides that make up DNA? (Full names)

A

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine.

37
Q

What are the three parts of a nucleotide? What part represents the 5’ end?

A

Sugar, Phosphate, Nitrogenous Base; Phosphate.

38
Q

What is Chargaff’s rule?

A

A=T, G=C.

39
Q

What was the name of Franklin’s famous x-ray crystallography picture of DNA (B-form)?

A

Photo 51.

40
Q

What was Crick’s contribution to the structure? What does “antiparallel” mean?

A

DNA helix model; Strands run in opposite directions.

41
Q

What was Watson’s contribution? How did chance (serendipity) play a role in his contribution?

A

DNA base-pairing model; He saw Franklin’s data by chance.

42
Q

How many H-bonds are between A and T? G and C?

A

A-T: 2, G-C: 3.

43
Q

How many base pairs are there in the human genome? A typical bacteria’s genome? An amoeba’s genome?

A

~3 billion, ~5 million, >100 billion.

44
Q

What phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication take place?

A

S phase.

45
Q

DNA is the only molecule that can replicate itself (a requirement for life). But it doesn’t actually replicate itself. Explain.

A

Enzymes like DNA polymerase facilitate replication.

46
Q

What enzyme opens up the strand? What bonds does it break?

A

Helicase; Hydrogen bonds.

47
Q

What do we call the opening of the strands (hint: think eating utensil)?

A

Replication fork.

48
Q

What enzyme adds nucleotides?

A

DNA polymerase.

49
Q

What is the one limitation to the enzyme that adds nucleotides?

A

It can only add to the 3’ end.

50
Q

What does it mean to copy along the leading strand (in terms of the replication fork)?

A

Continuous replication.

51
Q

What does it mean to copy along the lagging strand (in terms of the replication fork)?

A

Discontinuous replication in Okazaki fragments.

Bio honor (5 decks)

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