Unit 6 (1750-1900) Revolutions Flashcards
Navigation Acts
-Passed by Britain in the 1660s
-Said colonists could only sell their products to Britain
-Hard to enforce because so far away
-Many got around this by smuggling
Salutary Neglect
-Britain ignored America because it was making them lots of money
-America took on its own identity, govs, etc, leading to revolution
Stamp Act (1765)
-One of many taxes imposed on colonists after the French and Indian War
-First time colonists paid taxes directly to the British
-Violated natural rights (no taxation without representation)
-Protests, boycotting British goods
-Repealed in 1766
Boston Massacre
-British may have shot at colonists
Boston Tea Party
-Organized by Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty in 1773
-Protested the import tax on tea
-George III was mad and ordered the Boston port be closed and the British troops occupy Boston (Coercive Acts)
Continental Congresses
1st:
-Gathered in Philadelphia in 1774 to protest the treatment of Boston
2nd:
-Decided to raise an army under George Washington after Lexington and Concord
-Issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776
Declaration of Independence
-Issued by the Second Continental Congress in July 1776
-Written by Thomas Jefferson
-Used Locke’s ideas about the social contract
-Lists of reasons George III was unjust to rule, said they had rights to cut ties with Britain
Why did America (against the odds) win the Revolutionary War?
-Americans were defending their home (stronger motivation)
-British generals were overconfident and made mistakes
-Every battle Britain fought cost them more and more, people grew tired of funding an overseas war
-Louis XVI helped (to harm Britain), France entered war in 1778
The Crossing
Washington crosses the Delaware into New Jersey for the Battle of Trenton (first big victory, boosted morale)
Battle of Saratoga
-Turning point
-Convinced France to help Americans
Yorktown
-1781
-American and French soldiers defeat Britain
-Lord Cornwallis surrenders
-Signed Treaty of Paris (Britain gives them land to Mississippi so they could match France’s power)
Articles of Confederation
-Ratified in 1781
-Established the United States as a republic (citizens rule through elected representatives)
-Created a weak central gov because states didn’t want to give up authority
-Only a congress (no other branch)
-could NOT collect taxes or regulate trade
-States had one vote, laws needed 9 of 13 to pass (made it very hard)
Economic problems with the Articles
-Gov could only request money from states
-Veterans demanded back pay from the war
-States made their own money and even sometimes put tariffs on things from other states
-Massachusetts war veteran Daniel Shays led debt-ridden farmers in a rebellion against high state taxes and in demand of more use of paper money, attacked courthouses, etc
Constitutional Convention
-1787 meeting to revise the Articles
-55 men were the delegates, well educated in Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, etc
-Debated on issues like how many votes to each state, etc
US Constitution
-Ratified in 1788
-Federalists included a Bill of Rights to appease the Anti-Federalists
The Old Regime
-France’s feudalism system left over from the middle ages
Privileged Estates (no taxes, had gov power, owned land)
-First Estate: clergy
-Second Estate: nobles
Third Estate (tax burden
-Bourgeoisie (wealthy, educated in Enlightenment)
-Urban workers
-Peasants
Causes of French Revolution
-Estate system
-Tax burden
-Monarchy’s waste of money (Marie Antoinette)
-General debt (Louis XVI helping in A. Revolution)
Estates-General
-Called by Louis XVI in 1789 because he wanted to tax aristocrats (needed approval for this)
-Assembly of representatives from all three estates
-Each estate met separately, each given one vote (so third estate always outvoted)
National Assembly
-Abbe Sieyes (Sympathetic clergy member) told third estate delegates to form it and pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people
-This proclaimed the end of the absolute monarchy and start of a representative gov (first real act of rebellion)
-Started by bourgeoisie, eventually joined by clergy and nobles
Tennis Court Oath
-Third Estate was locked out of their meeting room
-Broke down a door into an indoor tennis court
-Pledged to stay until their new constitution was written
What did Louis XVI do out of fear, and what did that start?
-Stationed his mercenary army of Swiss guards in Paris because he didn’t trust the loyalty of French soldiers
-Rumors spread in Paris that foreign troops were coming to massacre French citizens
-People gathered weapons to defend Paris
Fall of Bastille
-July 14th
-Mob tried to get gunpowder form the Bastille (French prison)
-Overwhelmed the king’s soldiers, causing Bastille to fall into the citizens’ control
-Became a symbolic act of revolution
The Great Fear
-Rebellion spread from Paris to the countryside as more rumors circulated that nobles hired soldiers to kill the peasants
-Wave of senseless panic
-Peasants took pitchforks and torches, broke into nobles’ manors to burn debt records, etc
-Women rioted over the rising price of bread then marched to Versailles and made Louis and Marie come to Paris
Declaration of Rights of Man
-Statement by the National Assembly on August 27
-Ends the Old Regime
-Inspired by Enlightenment ideas and the Declaration of Independence
-Equal rights, liberty, property, security, justice, freedom of speech and religion
-“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” became the slogan of the revolution
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
-National Assembly took over the church’s lands and said church officials/priests were now elected by property owners and paid as state officials
-Done so help pay off France’s debt (selling church land was better than taxing the bourgeoisies more)
Constitution of 1791
-Implemented by National Assembly
-Created a constitutional monarchy (king couldn’t make the laws, only enforce them)
-Created Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly
-Created by the Constitution of 1791
-They could create laws and approve/prevent wars the king declared on other countries
-Split between Radicals/Liberals (left wing, opposed monarchy), Moderates (centrists), and Conservatives (right-wing, monarchy supporters)
Emigres
-Most extreme right group
-Nobles and others who fled France during the peasant uprisings
-Tried to undeo the Revolution and restore the Old Regime
Sans-Culottes
-Most extreme left group
-Name means without knee breeches (they were more common people)
-Parisian wage earners and small shopkeepers
-“The mob” was generally made up of them
War with Austria
-Austria and Prussia proposed they put Louis back on the throne (worried revolution could spread to their countries)
-Angered the Legislative Assembly, who then declared war on Austria (later Prussia joined)
-Europeans wanted to help Loui XVI rise to power again and preserve their own positions as monarchs
Invading the Tulieries
-July 1792: Prussian commander threatened to destroy Paris if they harmed any member of the royal family
-20,000 Parisians them invaded the Tuileries (Louis’s palace in Paris), massacred the 900 Swiss guards, and imprisoned Louis, Maries, and their children in a tower
September massacres
-Parisians learned that French troops were struggling to hold back Prussia and volunteer soldiers prepared to go help them
-Heard rumors that the royalists in Paris prisons would take control of the city if they left
-For several days in September 1792, Parisians raided the prisons and killed over 1,000 prisoners (royalists, nobles, clergymen)
National Convention
-Established after the summer 1792 chaos when the Legislative Assembly gave up on their constitution and limited monarchy
-Fully abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic
-Gave adult male citizens the right to vote and hold office (not women)
-Tried Louis for treason, found guilty, sentenced him to death (killed by guillotine in January 1793)
Jacobin Club
-One of the political clubs that bourgeoisie men and women joined
-Most radical one
-Wanted to remove the king and get rid of the monarchy
-Dominated the National Convention
Radicals in the Jacobin Club
-Jean Paul Marat edited a radical newspaper that called for hundreds of executions to rid France of the enemies to the revolution (killed by Charlotte)
-Georges Danton joined the club as a talented speaker sand a supporter of the rights of the poor (killed by Robespierre)
Maximilien Robespierre
-Radical Jacobin leader who gained a lot of power and wanted to build a “republic of virtue”
-Wanted to remove traces of France’s past monarchy and nobility (even got rid of churches)
-Said both virtue and terror were necessary in an empire
Committee of Public Safety
-Led by Robespierre
-Gave him the power to decide who should be considered an enemy of the public (and then often executed)
Reign of Terror
-July 1793-July 1794 when Robespierre governed as basically a dictator
-Marie Antoinette killed
-Other revolutionaries who questioned him killed (eg. Georges Danton (Marat already killed by a girl))
-Thousands more killed for dumb reasons (cut down a tree, served sour wine)
-3,000 executed in Paris, probably 40,000 total in the Terror
—-85% of them were peasants, urban poor, middle class (the common people the revolution was supposed to benefit!)
Robespierre killed
-A group of National Convention members turned on him
-Executed by the guillotine on July 28,1794
The Directory
-After Robespierre’s death, moderate leaders came up with a new gov in 1795
-Executive body of five men called the Directory (upper middle class, moderate group)
-The Directory brought France a period of order after so much chaos
Napoleon Bonaparte
-Born in 1769 in Corsica (right after annexed by France)
-Went to a military school in France, rose through the ranks in the French Revolution
-Became first consul during coup d’etat (had extreme power, controlled all gov basically)
-Crowned himself emperor in 1804, returns France to a monarchy (even more controlling than pre-revolution)
Concordat
-Treaty Napoleon made with Catholic church to keep the peace
-Recognized Catholicism as the majority religion and allowed them to hold processions and reopen seminaries, bur didn’t give them back their old land
-Kept the church happy, but also kept the new land owners happy and loyal to him
Napoleonic Code/Civil Code
-Napoleon codified French laws (not done before)
-Preserved revolution gains like equality under law, religious tolerance ,abolition of serfdom and feudalism, property rights, etc
-Did undo some stuff with families/divorce/women:
—Fathers now had control over family, divorce was hard for women ,women’s property was her husband’s, not taken seriously in court (treated as a minor)
-Napoleon tried to spread this throughout Europe (along with general ideas of destroying old order, etc)
Napoleon’s Reforms
-Public school system
-National bank
-Standard weight and measures
-Merit-based bureaucracy (promotions based on skill, not past revolution/monarchy supporter status or class)
Great Britain and Napoleon
-Britain’s power was in its navy, impossible for Napoleon to invade (defeated French+Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805)
-Napoleon tried to use the Continental System to defeat them economically (preventing British goods from getting to mainland Europe)
—–Failed bc Europe resisted and Britain had other places to ship like Latin America
Nationalism and Napoleon
-Emerged during the French Revolution (banding together, brotherhood: “fraternity”)
-Harnessed by Napoleon to go and fight these wars
-Spread beyond France, accidentally hurting Napoleon
-France was a common enemy, people joined together and rose up
Napoleon Invades Russia (1812)
-Invaded them because they weren’t following the Continental System
-600,000 man army into Russia
-Russia refused to fight: they would retreat and burn their villages to not give France food and relief
-Napoleon won at Borodino but lost a lot of men
-Reached Moscow, found it ablaze
-Had to make the “Great Retreat” back across Russia in winter, only 40,000 men made it back to Poland
-Led to more liberation wars around Europe, leading to his defeat
End of Napoleon
-Bourban monarchy was restored to France (Louis XVIII) and Napoleon exiled to Elba (island)
-Napoleon returns to France, wins support of army in 1815
-Fought allied forces in Belgium, but defeated at Waterloo by a British+Prussian army led by Duke of Wellington
-Exiled to a small island (St. Helena) in the South Atlantic, no more power
Latin American independence leaders
Haiti:
-Boukman
-Toussaint L’Ouverture
-Jean-Jacques Dessalines
South America:
-Simon Bolivar
-Jose de San Martin
Mexico:
-Miguel Hidalgo
-Jose Morelos
-Agustin de Iturbide
Brazil:
-Dom Pedro
Saint-Domingue
-French colony (now Haiti) that occupied the western third of Hispaniola (in the Caribbean)
-Majority of its population was its 500,000 slaves who were at the bottom of the system and worked on plantations
-The slaves outnumbered the masters so they used brutal methods to keep them powerless
-Extremely valuable due to sugar production
Night of Fire
-Voodoo ceremony
-African priest Boukman calls for revolution in Haiti
-Possessed woman dances to all the plantations, getting people to join the cause
-After a few days, 100,000 slaves rose up
Toussaint L’ouverture
-Ex-slave
-Emerged as a leader in the Haitian revolution
-Freed slaves in Santo Domingo (other part of Hispaniola)
-Wins and gets rid of slavery, makes himself governor, etc
-Napoleon comes into power and sends troops
-Tricks him and puts him in prison in the French Alps
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
-Toussaint’s general who took over after he was imprisoned
-Declared Haiti (“mountainous land”) an independent country, first black colony to free itself from European control
Louisiana Purchase
-After Napoleon loses Haiti, he has to sell this territory to make some money back (Haiti was very valuable)
Class system in Latin America
Peninsulares- born in Spain, only ones who could hold office
Creoles- Spaniards born in Latin America, couldn’t hold high political offices but could be officers in the Spanish colonial armies
Mestizos-People of European and Indian mixed ancestry
Mulattos- Mixed European and Africa descent
Africans- Higher than Indians because they had more value to them
Indians- Most oppressed bc no value to the Spaniards
Creoles start independence movement
-Creoles educated in Enlightenment ideas, felt they faced injustice and oppression
-When Napoleon put his brother on Spain’s throne (replacing Ferdinand VII), they felt no loyalty to this king and wanted to break free of Spain
Simon Bolivar
-Wealthy Venezuelan creole who was called “Libertador”
-1819 crossed the Andes and defeated the surprised army in Bogota (Colombia)
-Won Venezuelan independence by 1821
-Met with San Martin in Ecuador in 1822, got control of his army
-Defeated Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho (Peru) in 1824
-Wanted to create Gran Colombia (failed, broke apart)
Jose de San Martin
-Born in Argentina, but spent early life in Spain as a military officer
-Argentina declared independence in 1816 but Spanish forces in Chile and Peru were still a threat
-San Martin eld his army across the Andes to Chile, which he freed with Bernardo O’Higgins’s help
-1821, took his army to Lima but needed more forces
-Met with Bolivar in Ecuador in 1822, gave Bolivar his army
-Went to Europe, died quietly in 1850
What type of people led the revolution in Mexico?
-Indians and mestizos rather than creoles
Padre Miguel Hidalgo
-Priest in a small village Dolores
-Poor but well educated, especially in Enlightenment
-First step towards independence in 1810:
—-Rand the bell of his village church, peasants gathered, called for revolution
—-“Grito de Delores”- the cry of Dolores
-Next day, Hidalgo and 60,000 followers marched to Mexico City, Spanish army + creoles joined together against Hidalgo
Padre Jose Maria Morelos
-After Hidalgo defeated in 1811, rebels rallied around him
-Led the revolution for four years until defeated in 1815 by creole Agustin de Iturbide
Agustin de Iturbide
-Creoles want more political power, so they switch sides and help the revolution
-Creole Agustin de Iturbide proclaimed independence in 1821
-Central American states declared independence from Spain and Mexico, Iturbide refused to recognize this
-Iturbide declared himself emperor but was overthrown in 1823, Central America became United Provinces of Central America (independent)
What happened when Napoleon approached Lisbon in 1807?
-Prince John (later King John VI) and royal family boarded ships to escape capture, also taking the court and royal treasury
—-They went to Brazil (their biggest colony)
-In 1822, creoles demanded Brazil’s independence from Portugal
—-8,000 Brazilians signed a petition asking Dom Pedro (King John’s son) to rule, he agreed
—-Later in 1822, Dom Pedro officially called for independence
-This was a bloodless revolution
Results of Latin American independence movements
-Brought poverty since war disrupted trade and devastated cities and countryside
-The dream of a unified Latin America fell apart:
—Bolivar’s united Gran Colombia divided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela (1830)
-United Provinces of Central America split into El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras (1841)
Congress of Vienna (1815)
-Conservative reaction to French Revolution
-After Waterloo, diplomats and heads of state sat down to restore stability and order in Europe after 25 years of war
-Led by Prince Metternich (Austria)
-Principle of Legitimacy (restored hereditary monarchs from pre revolution, like Louis XVIII)
-Redrew maps to tame France (surrounded by Netherlands and Prussia now)
Concert of Europe
-Pushed for by Metternich
-Peacemaking organization that included all major European states
-Each pledged to help keep balance of power and suppressing uprisings similar to the French Revolution
-Generally pretty good (no large scale war for 100 years), but didn’t consider the force of nationalism
Nationalism
-Powerful force in the 1800s that fueled the creation of nation-states
-People united by a common history, culture, world-view, language, etc instead of loyalty to a king
-Broke up Austro-Hungary, the Russian Empire, and and the Ottoman Empire because they were all a jumble of ethnic groups
Austro-Hungarian Empire breaks up
-Made up of Hungarians, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Poles, Serbs, and Italians
-Emperor Francis Joseph split his empire in half, with Hungary and Austria being independent states (he ruled them both though)
-After WWI, Austria-Hungary continued to crumble into separate nation-states
Russian Empire crumbles
-Made up of Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Lithuanians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians, Armenians, and Turks
-The Romanov’s strict policy of Russification (imposing Russian culture on all ethnic groups like Jews (eg. pogroms)) increased nationalism
-After WWI and the Communist Revolution, the last czar gave up power in 1917
Ottoman Empire weakens
-Made up of Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Arabs, Bulgarians, and Armenians
-After being pressured by Britain+France, in 1856, the Ottomans did reforms for equal citizenship for everyone under their rule
—–This caused tension with conservative Turks who were used to having a higher standing than others
-1915 Armenian genocide (Young Turks, nationalism)
-The Ottoman Empire broke apart soon after WWI
Italy after the Congress of Vienna (1815)
-Austria ruled the northern Italian provinces (Venetia and Lombardy)
-Spanish Bourbans ruled the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (southern Italy)
-After this, there was growing Italian discontent which eventually led to Italian unification
Giuseppe Mazzini
-In 1832, at age 26, he organized a nationalist group called Young Italy (all under 40 years old)
-Revolts broke out in 1848 and Mazzini briefly headed a republic gov at Rome, hoping to make a nation-state
-The former rulers of the Italian states drove him and other nationalist leaders into exile eventually
Piedmont-Sardinia
-Largest and most powerful Italian state
-King Victor Emmanuel II ruled it
-Adopted a liberal constitution in 1848, so Italian middle class people wanted to unite under them
Camillo di Cavour
-Appointed prime minister of Sardinia in 1852 by King Victor Emmanuel II
-Wealthy aristocrat, built Sardinia’s power through diplomacy and alliances
-Uniting Italy was an aftereffect, he was really just trying to strengthen Sardinia
-Allied with Napoleon III to drive Austria out from Lombardy and Venetia (took back all of northern Italy but Venetia)
-Started secretly helping nationalist rebels in southern Italy
Giuseppe Garibaldi
-Captured Sicily in 1860 with a small nationalist army (“Red Shirts”)
-Started marching further north and gaining followers
-Elected to unite the southern areas he conquered with Piedmont-Sardinia
—-Stepped aside to let King Emmanuel II rule
Italian tension after unification
-Tension between industrialized (and just economically better) north and agricultural (and less developed) south
-Arguments in parliament, prime ministers and cabinets changed frequently
-Economic problems
-Peasant revolts in south, strikes and riots in the north
German Confederation
-Loose group created by the 1815 Congress of Vienna
-Made up of 39 states: largest were Austria-Hungary and Prussia
Wilhelm I
-King of Prussia
-Hoped to reform the army and double the size of the Prussian military (Liberal parliament refused to give him money for this)
-Supported in this view by the Junkers
-Eventually kaiser of the Second Reich
Junkers
-Conservative, wealthy, landowning class in Prussia
-Supported Wilhelm I
Otto van Bismarck
-Junker who was made prime minister to help Wilhelm deal with the parliament issue
-Became a master at realpolitik (“politics of reality”), politics with no idealism
-Wanted to expand Prussia (loyalty to Wilhelm and just gaining more power)
Prussia vs Denmark
-Formed an alliance with Austria and went to war against Denmark
—-Won two provinces, Schleswig (went to Prussia) and Holstein (went to Austria)
Seven Weeks’ War
-Purposely prompted by Bismarck by stirring up border conflicts over Schleswig and Holstein
—Led Austria to declare war in 1866
-Prussia won fast bc of their superior training and equipment
-Austrians lost Venetia (given to Italy) and Prussia got more German territory
-Northern German Confederation formed, east and west Prussia joined together, Prussia truly dominated Germany
Franco-Prussian War
-Purposely prompted by Bismarck in order to win southern support (war would unite them)
—-Published an altered telegram that made it seem like Wilhelm I insulted the French
—-France declared war on Prussia in 1870
-Quickly defeated main French force at Sedan and took 80,000 prisoners (including Napoleon III)
-Paris held out for a few months, but after two much hunger, they surrendered
-Did lead to nationalism in the south and a unified Germany under Prussian rule
Second Reich
-In 1871, at the captured Versailles, Wilhelm I was crowned kaiser (emperor) of the new empire
-Called the second reich bc the first was the Holy Roman Empire
Romanticism
-Emerged in the late 1700s
-Connected with nationalism
-Turned against Enlightenment reason, more focused on emotions and nature
-Imagination, exotic things, nature, idealizing the past, glorifying heroes, cherishing folk traditions, valuing the common people, promoting change and democracy
Romantic writers
Lord Byron- poet, also joined nationalism efforts and fought for Greece
Wordsworth- poet, nature
Mary Shelley (Gothic novel Frankenstein)
Johann Wolfgang van Goethe- “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, story of a man driven to suicide after a love for a married woman
Victor Hugo- Les Miserables, Hunchback of Notre Dame, struggles of individuals in hostile societies
Brothers Grimm- German brothers, collected fairytales and made a German dictionary
Romantic composers
Franz Liszt- became very famous (“pop star”)
Ludwig Van Beethoven
Frederic Chopin- used Polish dance rhythms
Realism
-Mid 1800s
-Came from industrialization, which made romanticism seem pointless
-Showed life how it really was
-Reflected importance of the working class, showed workers’ suffering
Daguerreotypes and Photography
-First practical photographs
-Named for inventor Louis Daguerre
-Part of realism movement
-William Talbot’s process of using a light-sensitive paper to make photographic negatives allowed photos to be reproduced in books and newspapers (photography became widespread)
Impressionism
-Movement against photography and realism
-Showing an impression of a subject/moment in time, not necessarily how it “really was”
-Fascination with light: used pure and shimmering colors in their art
Impressionist artists
Painters:
-Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir
-Showed a more positive view of urban society (shop clerks, actors, dancers, instead of abused workers)
Composers:
-Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy
-Used music to create the impression of light, a warm day, the sea, etc
