Unit 7 (1750-1900) Industrial Revolution, Imperialism Flashcards
Agricultural Revolution
-Paved the way for the Industrial Revolution
-Wealthy landowners bought up the land from small farmers and started improving farming methods (called the enclosure method)
—-Led many small farmers to give up farming and move to cities (leads to ind. rev.)
-Crop rotation
-Selective breeding
-Population boom, more demand for food and goods, industrial revolution happens
Why was Britain the home of the Industrial Revolution?
-Large population of workers in cities
-Natural resources
—-Water and coal (powered machines), iron (making machines and tools), rivers (transportation), and harbors (for merchant ships)
-Expanding economy (businessmen invested in manufacturing, loans were available)
-“Protestant Work Ethic”
-Large middle class want to become entrepreneurs
-Relatively politically stable, only fought in wars not on home soil
-Bill of Rights protected intellectual property (eg machine designs)
Textile industry
-First industry transformed by the Industrial Revolution
-Started supplying wool, linen, and cloth to the rest of the world
-Flying shuttle, spinning jenny, cotton gin (in America, their supplier of cotton), water power, factories
Energy Revolution
-Steam Engine by Newcomen in 1712 but used a lot of fuel and was therefore very expensive
-In 1765, James Watt figured out how to make it faster and use less fuel
—Watt joined with entrepreneur Matthew Boulton who paid him a salary to keep making engines
-Steamboats, railroad locomotives, etc
Effects of Railroads
-Material+goods transport much cheaper
-Created hundreds of thousands of jobs (railroad workers, iron miners for the tracks, coal miners for the engines)
-Boosted agricultural and fishing industries (transport their stuff to big distant cities)
-Traveling was easier, so country people could work in the city and city dwellers could vacation in the countryside
Early Factories
-Work schedule was 14 hours a day, 6 days a week
-Women and children dominated the textile industry
-Factory work was very dangerous, no safety mechanisms, no compensation for injury/death
-Coal mines even more dangerous, avg coal miner lived ten fewer years than avg factory worker
1st vs 2nd Industrial Revolutions
1st: Textiles, water, steam power
2nd: Combustion, engines, electricity, steel, automobiles
Bessemer Process
-Mass production of steel
-Made it inexpensive and available for industrial advances
-Used by Andrew Carnegie in Carnegie Steel
Standard of Living increases
-Factory Act (limits child labor, reduced working hours, pensions)
-Fire and police departments
-Education, voting rights, unions
-Leisure time for middle class, vacations, sports, etc
New Class System
-Upper Class was the Old landowning aristocracy and New Industrial Rich (factory owners, bankers, etc)
—-NIR bought estates, were respected, got political power, etc
-New Upper Middle Class was lawyers, doctors, gov employees, managers of factories and mines
-Lower Middle Class was teachers, factory overseers, skilled craftsmen, mechanical drafters, and printers
-Industrial Working Class worked in factories and textile mills, operated machines, etc
Irish Potato Famine
-Only European country at the tike where population decrease
-One million killed
-Two million had to migrate to US and Britain in mid 1800s
Corporations
-Businesses owned by investors who buy stock
-Formed because large businesses required a lot of capital and needed investors
-Eg Standard Oil (John D Rockefeller) and Carnegie Steel (Andrew Carnegie)
-Monopolies are corporations who dominate entire industries
What started the Age of Reform?
In the 1800s, people felt that the Industrial Revolution and progress made opened the gap between the rich and the poor
Laissez-Faire
-“let do”
-Economic policy of letting owners of industry and business set working conditions without interference
-Favors a free market unregulated by the gov
-Smith, Malthus, Ricardo
Adam Smith
-Prof. at Uni of Glasgow
-Defended idea of free. markets in his 1776 book “The Wealth of Nations”
-Argued that economic liberty guaranteed economic progress
-If individuals followed their own self-interest, the world and economy would progress
-Social harmony guided by an “invisible hand”. It was natural, doesn’t need gov interference
-Father of capitalism
Capitalism
-Economic system in which money is invested in business ventures to make profit
-Individuals own and operate businesses for profit
Thomas Malthus
-1798 “An Essay on the Price of Population”
-Said pop. tended to increase more rapidly than the food supply
-Without wars and epidemics to kill people off, most people destined to be poor and miserable
Daniel Ricardo
-Wealthy stockbroker
-1817 “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation”
-Agreed w/ Malthus that there would always be a poor underclass
-IF many workers+resources, labor and resources are cheap. If few workers/resources, they are expensive
—-Therefore, wages will decrease as population increases
Utilitarianism
-The greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principle of conduct.
-Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill
Robert Owen
-British factory owner who improved his employees’ working conditions, didn’t allow children to work in his mills, provided them schooling
-Traveled to US in 1824, founded a cooperative community in New Harmony Indiana, intended to be a utopia
—-Only lasted 3 years, but inspired other ones
Socialism
-Promoted by French reformers like Charles Fourier and Saint-Simon
-Factors of production owned by the public and operate for the welfare of all
-Gov planned economy and had control of factories, mines, railroad, and other key industries would abolish poverty and promote equality
The Communist Manifesto
-Pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (wealthy)
-Human societies divided into the haves (middle class employers, bourgeoisie) and have-nots (poor workers, proletariat)
-Inspired revolts in 1800s and powerful leaders in 1900s (Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, Fidel Castro)
Stages of Communist Revolution
- Proletariat revolt
- Dictatorship of the proletariat
- Goods and wealth distributed evenly
- Classless society emerges where people are equal (Communism)
Communism
-Form of complete socialism where the means of production (land, mines, factories, railroads, businesses) would be owned by the people
Marxism vs Communism
-Marxism was a general philosophy (economics, race, religion, etc) that argues against capitalism
-Communism was a political and economic system
What did Marx and Engel get wrong?
-Said only economic forces dominated society, but really religion, nationalism, democracy, etc have been very influential
-Said the gap btwn rich and poor would widen to a huge extent, in reality it was managed by reforms (ten hours act, factory act, child labor laws, etc)
Jane Addams
-US college educated woman
-Created settlement houses (Hull House in Chicago) in poor neighborhoods to help immigrants and working women
Horace Mann
-US reformer, pushed for free public education for all children, said very important for society
-By 1850s, many states had this
-In Western Europe, late 1800s it happened
Alexis de Tocqueville
-French writer, contrasted brutal conditions of American prisons with the American ideal of liberty
-Prison reform focused on the goal of restoring prisoners to useful lives
New Imperialism
-1800-1914
-Domination by one country of the political, economic, or culture of another country/region
-Ramped up late 1800s and actually led to control of China, India, and Africa (not done previously), more direct control as well
Economic causes for imperialism
-Bc of Industrial Revolution, manufacturers wanted access to natural resources (rubber, petroleum, manganese, and palm oil)
-They also wanted to new markets to sell goods to
-Also were places for their rapidly growing populations to go
Political/Military causes for imperialism
-Steam powered merchant ships and naval vessels needed bases around the world to take on coal and supplies, so they seized islands and harbors
-Nationalism played a role, European nations tried to block each other from taking on new territory
-Western leaders thought having overseas colonies increased their prestige
Humanitarian cause for imperialism
-Westerns often felt genuine concern for their “little brothers” overseas
-Missionaries, doctors, and colonial officers felt it was their duty to spread western civilization through medicine, law, and Christianity as “blessings” for them
Social Darwinism
-Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest, but for human societies
-Believed European races were superior and imperial conquest and destruction of weaker races was natural in improving the human species
“The White Man’s Burden”
-Rudyard Kipling poem
-Sending Europeans to “help” the “uncivilized” people through imperialism
Weakness of the nonwestern states in imperialism
-Older civilizations were declining in the 1800s (Ottoman Middle East, Mughal India, Qing China)
-Africa weak from wars and effects of the slave trade
Western Advantages for imperialism
-Strong economies, organized gov, powerful armies and navies
-Improved medical knowledge (eg quinine medicine) that helped them survive deadly tropical diseases
-Maxim machine guns, repeating rifles, steam-driven warships
Direct vs Indirect colonies
-French had direct rule, sent soldiers and officials to administer the colonies, impose French culture, andn make them French provinces
-British had indirect rule, colonies governed by local rulers like sultans and chiefs
—Also encouraged local ruling classes to send their children to Britain for education, groomed a new westernized generation to continue their rule
Protectorate
-Local rulers left in place but expected to follow the advice of European advisors on trade, missionary activity, etc
-Cheaper to run than a colony, took less military force
Sphere of influence
-Area in which an outside area claimed exclusive investment or trading privileges
-Europeans did this in China and more to prevent conflict among themselves
-US did this for Latin America
Africa pre Imperialism
-Muslim influence
-Slave trade
-Trade in general (East Africa city states)
-Some European contact
Dr David Livingstone
-Explorer-missionary who explored Africa for 30 years
-Wrote about the people he met with more sympathy and less bias than most Europeans
-Opposed the slave trade, said the way to stop it was to open the interior of Africa to trade and Christianity
-Explored the Zambesi River Valley and named Victoria Falls in 1855
Henry Stanley
-Journalist and explorer who went to Central Africa to track down Livingstone in 1871, found him and said “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”
-Sent by King Leopold II of Belgium to explore the Congo River basin and arrange treaties with African leaders
King Leopold II
-King of Belgium
-Sent Henry Stanley to explore the Congo River basin and arrange treaties with African leaders
-Publicly spoke about a civilizing mission for Africa but really just wanted conquest and profits
-Him taking the Congo set off a scramble by other European nations
Berlin Conference
-Meeting of European powers in 1884 to divide up Africa and avoid conflict amongst themselves
-Recognized Leopold’s private claims to the Congo Free State, but called for free trade on the Congo and Niger rivers
-Said a European power could only claim a part of Africa if they set up a gov office there
-In the 20 years after this conference, Europe partitioned almost the whole continent and drew new borders with little regard to ethnic boundaries
Congolese Genocide
-10 mil killed/died bc of Leopold
-Exploited for resources like rubber
-Forced laborers to work for almost nothing, often beat and mutilated them
-Caused a population decline in some areas
-International outrage over this made Leopold turn over his colony to the Belgian gov, becoming the Belgian Congo
Force Publique
-Leopold’s military/army in the Congo
-Carried out horrors of genocide
-Led by Europeans, staffed by Africans
Alice Harris
-Photographer who helped expose what was happening in the Congo (severed limb pics)
Liberia and Sierra Leone
-Colonies for former slaves/free black people from US and UK
Shaka Zulu
-Leader of Zulu nation (in southern Africa) who united it
-Started war and mass migration after his conquests
Boers
-Descendants of Dutch settlers
-Fled north (Great Trek) to start own republics, fought with the Zulu
Anglo Zulu War
-Conflict ensued when gold and diamonds were discovered on Boer land
-Britain fights for that territory and wins (though Zulu win a battle)
Boer War (1899-1902)
-Same cause as Anglo Zulu (diamonds)
-First modern war (high casualties, including civilians, machine guns, concentration camps)
-Britain wins
-Effect was that it causes debt, which makes Britain allow their white rule colonies (N. Zealand, S. Africa, Canada, Australia) be autonomous
—-Makes colonies like India and African ones mad, nationalism movements, etc
Union of South Africa
-In 1910, Britain united the Cape Colony and former Boer republics into the Union of South Africa
-Had a constitution that set up a white gov which laid the foundations for apartheid
Ethiopia
-Ancient Christian kingdom in the highlands of East Africa that was divided up among rival princes (like feudal Europe)
-In the late 1800s, reforming ruler Menelik II modernized his country:
—European experts hired for roads, bridges, and school systems
—Imported the latest weapons
—Had European officers to train his army
-Italy invaded in 1896, but Menelik was prepared and they beat them at the Battle of Adowa
-They were the only African nation (other than Liberia) to preserve independence
Pre British Imperialism India
-British East India Company (I’ll abbreviate to EIC) set up trading posts in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta in the 1600s
-Initially the Mughal Dynasty kept European traders under control, but it was collapsing by 1707
Battle of Plassey
-Took advantage of Mughal weakness
-1757, Robert Clive led company troops in a victory over India at the Battle of Plassey
-From then on, the EIC was the leading power in India
Sepoys
-Indian soldiers
-Part of EIC’s army/military force
-Led by British, staffed by sepoys
“Jewel in the Crown”
-What the British called India (most valuable colony)
-Major supplier of raw materials for Britain (team, indigo, coffee, cotton, jute)
-300 mil. people, huge potential market for British goods
Positives for India of colonialism
-3rd largest railroad network in the world built, allowed them to develop a modern economy and bring unity by connecting the regions
-Legal system
-Education (build schools and colleges, literacy increase)
-Brought a modern road network, telephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges, irrigation canals
-Sanitation, public health
-British troops cleared central India of bandits and stopped local warfare
Negatives for India of colonialism
-British restricted Indian-owned industries like cotton textiles
-Emphasis on cash crops reduced food production, causing famines in the late 1800s
-Heavy taxes
-Hands off policy for Indian religious/social customs, but in reality still had missionaries and racism
Sepoy Mutiny
-In 1857, gossip spread among the sepoys that the cartridges of their new rifles were sealed with beef and pork fat, so they would have to bite off the seal (angered both Hindus and Muslims)
-British jailed anyone who refused the cartridges, so they marched to Delhi, took the city, and spread the rebellion further across northern and central India
-EIC regained control after a year of fierce fighting with help from British gov troops
-Ultimately failed bc weak leadership and split between Hindus and Muslims
—-Hindus preferred British rule to the Muslim Mughal empire
—-Princes and maharajahs who had alliances with the EIC remained loyal, the Sikhs (hated the Mughals) also didn’t help the rebellion
Main effect of Sepoy Mutiny
Britain takes over control (not just EIC)
British Raj (1757-1947)
-Because of the mutiny, in 1858, the British gov took direct control of India
-Cabinet minister in England directed policy, viceroy in India carried out the gov’s orders
-Bureaucracy (top positions only for British, European educated Indians could get lower ones)
Ram Mohun Roy
-Modern thinking, educated (languages, French and American revolutions) Indian man
-Called the “Father of Modern India” for his reforms
-Called for the end of widow suicide
-Said child marriage and the caste system needed to be changed to modernize India
-Said if India didn’t change, it would continue to be controlled by outsiders
-Started a social reform movement
-His writings inspired other reformers to call for the adoption of western ways
Nationalism in India
-Emerged because Indians felt like second class citizens in their own country
—Even European educated ones couldn’t get top posts in the Indian Civil Service and got paid much less for their middle level positions
-Led to the founding of the Indian National Congress (1885) and Muslim League (1906) who eventually called for self government
How did China feel about foreigners?
-Looked down on them out of pride for their ancient culture
China’s favorable balance of trade
-Export (tea, silk, porcelain) more than import (European goods, supplemented with silver)
-Only allowed foreign trade from the southern port of Guangzhou
Cause of Opium War
-Europe wanted a product that China would buy in large quantities (to tip fav. balance of trade and stop depleting their silver)
-Narcotic from the poppy plant
-Chinese doctors had been using it for pain relief for hundreds of years
-In the late 1700s, British merchants smuggled it into China for non medical use (smoking it)
-It caught on and by 1835, 12 million people were addicted (ruins social fabric of China)
Effects of Opium War
-Opium War (1839) broke out when Britain refused to stop trading opium
-Battles were at sea, China had outdated ships vs. British cannons and steam powered gunboats
-China lost, signed Treaty of Nanjing in 1842
—-Gave Britain the island of Hong Kong and allowed extraterritorial rights (your country’s laws apply to you, not China’s)
Hong Xiuquan
-From a rural family
-Influenced by Christian missionaries (allowed in China bc of Treaty of Nanjing)
-Had mystical visions about saving China and creating a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” where Chinese people would share wealth and nobody would be poor
-Called the Taiping Rebellion (taiping=great peace)
Taiping Rebellion
-Beginning in the late 1840s, Hong organized an army (1 million soldiers by 1853), many peasants (men and women) from southern China
-Captured Nanjing in 1853, declared it his capital, now controlled large parts of southeastern China
-Took 14 years and foreign help to put down (shows weakness, made Cixi allow spheres of influence)
-At least 10 mil died from destroyed farmland
Dowager Empress Cixi
-Ruled China from 1861-1908
-Mainly traditional, but supported certain reforms
-Backed the self-strenghtening movement in the 1860s
- Nephew was Guangxu, opposed his reforms
Self-Strenghtening Movement
-1860s movement backed by Dowager Empress Cixi
-Updated educational system, diplomatic service and military (China setting up arsenals to make steam powered gun boats, rifles, and ammunition)
-Good because making ships and ammo boosted morale
-Downside was that foreigners often ran the arsenals and imported raw materials and factory machinery from abroad
—-Imbalance of trade, lack of quality control, loss of public support
Open Door Policy
-US was worried other nations would divide China into colonies and stop China’s trade with the US
-Bc of this, in 1899, they declared an Open Door Policy
-Said China’s doors must be open to merchants of all nations
-Britain and other European nations agreed
-Both protected US trade rights in China and China’s freedom from colonization
Guangxu
-Young emperor, pressed for strong reforms (100 Days of Reforms) due to being upset at China’s loss of power
-Assuming he had his aunt (cixi)’s approval, introduced modernizing reforms (100 Days of Reforms)
—-Overhauling education system, strengthening the economy, modernizing the military, streamlining the gov
-Qing officials saw this as threat to their power, called the Dowager Empress back to imperial court
—-Placed her nephew under arrest, took back power, reversed his reforms, executed some of the movement’s leaders
Boxer Rebellion
-Led by Society of Harmonious Fists, upset about foreign control
-The Boxers’ campaign against the Dowager Empress’s rule and foreigner privilege
-Descended on Beijing in 1900, surrounded the European section of the city, kept it under siege for several months
-Quickly defeated by 20,000 troops from Britain, France , Germany, Austria, Italy , Russia, Japan, and US
-Increased nationalism, made the gov listen to the people’s needs more
Chinese gov reform
-Dowager Empress sent a group of Chinese officials on a world tour (Japan, US, Britain, France , Germany, Russia, Italy) in 1905 to see how different govs operate
-Returned in 1906, said China should restructure the gov to be more like Japan’s constitutional monarchy
-Empress accepted this, started reforming, called a national assembly
-Court announced in 1908 that they would be a full constitutional gov by 1917
Tokugawa Japan
-Urbanized
-Good agriculture
-Cultural borrowing
-Manufacturing started
-Peace
-All this leads to industrialization later
Matthew Perry
-US Commodore who took four steamships with cannons and rifles into Tokyo harbor in 1853
-Brought a letter from President Millard Fillmore, asking for free trade between US and Japan
-Came back a year later, signed the Treaty of Kanagawa
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)
-Japan opened two ports where American ships could take on supplies
-Allowed the US an embassy in Japan
-Opened the door for other western powers: by 1860, foreigners allowed to trade at treaty ports and have extraterritorial rights
Sat-Cho Group
-Samurai/daimyo, angry with shogun for allowing foreign demands
-Put Mutsuhito in power
Mutsuhito
-15 year old emperor (figurehead)
-Appealed to Japan’s sense of pride and nationalism, so people rallied around him when they were angry with the shogun or giving in to foreign demands
Meiji Restoration
-Started in 1867 when the shogun stepped down (ending the shogun tradition since the 1100s)
-Meiji means “enlightened rule”
-Led by Mutsuhito, lasted for 45 years (1867-1912)
-First act of Meiji era was the feudal lords giving their land to the emperor instead of private ownership
-Modernization and Westernization
-Charter Oath (new gov, 2 houses (one ruling, one common people)
-More social mobility
-New constitution (convinces countries to get rid of their extraterritorial rights)
Japan copies the west
-Meiji era policy of sending statesmen to Europe and North America to study foreign ways and apply them to Japan
-Admired Germany’s strong centralized gov, used its constitution as a model for Japan’s
-Admired German army’s discipline and British navy’s skill, so tried to imitate this
-Adopted American system of universal public education
Japan industrializes
-By early 1900s, they were as modern as any other
-Railroad in 1872, connected Tokyo (capital) to Yokohama (port)
-Coal production grew from 1/2 mil tons in 1875 to over 21 mil tons in 1913
-State supported companies built thousands of factories
-Traditional Japanese industries (tea processing, silk production, sake, cotton) expanded, giving them unique trade products
-Also developed modern industries (shipbuilding, weapons production), made them competitive with the west
Zaibatsu
-Families given industries to run from the gov
-Often later became corporations
Sino-Japanese War
-Japan forced Korea to open three ports to trade with them but China also wanted to trade with them
—-Signed a hands-off agreement in 1885, no sending armies into Korea
-China broke this agreement by sending their military to help Korea’s king when he was facing rebellions
-Japan sent their army in response
-Japan drove the Chinese out of Korea, destroyed the Chinese navy, stated taking over Manchuria
-Signed peace treaty in 1895: gave Japan Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands (their first colonies)
Russo-Japanese War
-Russia and Japan were now the big powers in East Asia after Japan defeated China
-Went to war over Manchuria after Japan offered Russia rights to Manchuria if they would stay out of Korea and Russia refused
-In 1904, Japan surprised attacked Russia’s navy, starting the war
-Japan drove the Russians out of Korea, captured most of Russia’s Pacific fleet, and destroyed Russia’s Baltic Fleet
-Ended with the Treaty of Portsmouth
Treaty of Portsmouth
-End of the Russo-Japanese war
-Theodore Roosevelt helped draft it
-Signed on a ship off Portsmouth, New Hampshire
-Gave Japan their captured territories and made Russia withdraw form Manchuria and stay out of Korea
Japan takes over Korea
-Made Korea a protectorate in 1905
-Sent advisors who took more and more power from the Korean government
-Korean king couldn’t get international support, so he gave up control over the country in 1905
-The Imperial army disbanded within two years
-Officially annexed by Japan in 1910, bringing them under their control for 35 years
Japan’s rule of Korea
-Forbade public protest
-Shut down Korean newspapers
-Took over Korean schools, made them teach Japanese instead of Korean (language and history)
-Took land from Korean farmers, gave it to Japanese settlers
-Encouraged Japanese businessmen to start industries in Korea, but Koreans couldn’t do the same in their own country
-Led to resentment of Japanese, nonviolent protests, and a growing Korean nationalist movement
French Indochina
-In early 1800s, French missionaries began converting people in Vietnam (had long been Confucian, so they tried to stop it)
-French seized a chunk of Vietnam in the 1860s, continued to all of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia (known as French Indochina to the West)
-Allowed local rulers to keep their titles but made them give power to colonial officials
Thailand survives imperialism
-Siam was in between British Burma and French Indochina
-Escaped colonization because they didn’t underestimate Europe and avoided provoking them
-King Mongkut and his son Chulagonkorn reformed the gov, modernized the army, hired western experts, abolished slavery, gave women some choice in marriage, let students go abroad
-Britain and France saw the advantage of making this a buffer state between them, so guaranteed its independence in early 1900s (did set up spheres of influence though)
Philippines imperialism
-Had been seized by Spain in 1500s, Catholic missionaries, church grows wealthy and powerful, some resented Spain for this
-During Spanish-American War, America destroyed Spanish fleet in the Philippines, so FIlipino leader declared independence and helped fight Spain
-Thought they would be recognized by America as independent, but the treaty that ended the war gave the US the Philippines
-Emilio Aguinaldo battled American forces from 1899 to 1901, but lost
Hawaii
-Mid-1800s, American sugar growers (eg Dole fruit company) pressed for power in Hawaii
-Queen Liliuokalani tried to reduce foreign influence ,so American planters overthrew her in 1893 and asked the US to annex Hawaii (did so in 1898)
Monroe Doctrine
-Said the Americas should not be considered for colonization by Europeans
Spanish-American War
-Caused by Cuba wanting independence, USS Maine thing, yellow journalism (said Spain was responsible)
-US gained Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam
-After Cuba was independent, the US made Cuba add the Platt Amendment to their constitution which gave the US naval bases in Cuba and the right to intervene in Cuban affairs
US intervention
-Said they needed to protect their investments in Latin America, so they issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
—-Said they had “international police power” in the Western Hemisphere
-When Dominican Republic failed to pay foreign debts, the US sent troors and remained for years
-Did the same in Cuba, Haiti, Medico, Honduras, Nicaragua, and others
Panama Canal
-US wanted a canal across Central America so they could move their fleet between Atlantic and Pacific oceans easily, protect both coastlines, and reduce trade costs
-Panama belonged to Columbia (wouldn’t sell US the land), so in 1903, the US helped Panama win independence
-Panama gave them land, canal opened in 1914
