UNIT 5 (CH 7/11) Flashcards
the persistance of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
memory
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yeild better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice
spacing effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
serial position effect
the encoding of picture images
visual encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
acoustic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
semantic encoding
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
imagery
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
mnemonics
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
chunking
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds
echoic memory
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
long-term potentiation (LTP)
retention independent of conscious recollection - IMpossible to remember
implicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” - able to EXplain
explicit memory
a neural cneter that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
hippocampus
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
mood-congruent memory
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
proactive interference
the disruption effect of new learning on the recall of old information
retroactive interference
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
repression
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event; at the heart of false memories
misinformation effect
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined; at the heart of false memories
source amnesia
the processing of information into the memory system
encoding
the retention of encoded information over time
storage
the process of getting information our of memory storage
retrieval
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory memory
activitated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or fargotten
short-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, includes knowledge, skills and experiences
long-term memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
working memory
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mose of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
parallel processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning
automatic processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
effortful processing
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
rehearsal
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
flashbulb memory
the loss of memory
amnesia
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recall
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
recognition
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
relearning
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
priming
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
deja vu
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
algorithm
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
heuristic
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
insight
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
creativity
a tendency to search for information that supports our presonceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
confirmation bias
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
fixation
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been sucessful in the past
mental set
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
functional fixedness
the tendency to be more confident that correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
overconfidence
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were informed has been discredited
belief perseverence
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
framing
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
language
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
phoneme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word
morpheme
a system if rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
grammar
the set of rules by which we derive menaing from morphemes, words, and sentences ina given language; also, the study of meaning
semantics
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
syntax
beginning at about 4 months - infants spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
babbling stage
Whrof’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
linguistic determination
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognition
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people
concept
a mental image or best example of a category
prototype
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability on memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
availability heuristic
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with eplicit, conscious reasoning
intuition
the stage in speech development, from about 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words`
one-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
two-word stage
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a tetlgram - “go car”
telegraphic speech
a method for assessinf an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
intelligence test
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
intelligence
Spearman - a general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
general intelligence (g)
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of realted items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
factor analysis
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an expectional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
savant sydrome
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
emotional intelligence
Binet - a measure of intelligence test performance - a child who does as well as a 8 year old has that mental age
mental age
the widely used American version (Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test
Stanford-Binet
originally (ma/ca x 100 = IQ); now the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
intelligence quotient (IQ)
tests designed to assess what a person has learned
achievement test
tests designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
aptitude tests
most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretest
standardization
the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many pyhsical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
normal curve
the extent to which a test yields consistent redults, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting
reliability
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
content validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the ctiteriob behavior
predictive validity
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to prefound
intellectual disability
a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
Down Syndrome
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
stereotype threat
passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
grit
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period
cohort
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
crystallized intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
fluid intelligence
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
cross-sectional study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
longitudinal study
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of the population and environments studied
heritability
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
testing effect (retrieval practice effect/test-enhanced learning)
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
shallow processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
deep processing
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)
episodic memory
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
reconsolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
memory consolidation
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
encoding specificity principle
an inability to form new memories
anterograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
retrograde amnesia
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
convergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
divergent thinking
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
aphasia
helps control language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Broca’s area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Wernicke’s area
the weaker form of “linguistic relativity” - the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language)
linguistic influence
