UNIT 1 (CH 1/2) Flashcards
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
empiricism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
structuralism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
functionalism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
behaviorism
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth
humanistic psychology
the inter-disciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
cognitive neuroscience
the science of behavior and mental processes
psychology
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science see traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of both.
nature-nurture issue
the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on the succeeding generations
natural selection
the differing complementary views, from biological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
level of analysis
an integrated appraoch that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
biopsychosocial approach
a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes
biological psychology
the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
evolutionary psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
psychodynamic psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognitive psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
social-cultural psychology
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
psychometrics
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
basic research
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
developmental psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
educational psychology
the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Personality psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
social psychology
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
applied research
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
industrial-organizational psychology (I/O)
the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that assist people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
clinical psychology
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicianswho often provice medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
psychiatry
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
Introspection
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
behavior genetics
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
culture
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
positive psychology
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
testing effect
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
community psychology
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it (also known as I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
hindsight bias
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
critical thinking
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
theory
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
hypothesis
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
operational definition
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
replication
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
case study
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of a group
survey
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
population
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
correlation coefficient
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
scatterplot
the perception of a relationship where none exists
illusory correlation
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
experiment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
random assignment
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
double-blind procedure
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
placebo effect
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contracts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
control group
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
independent variable
a factor other that the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
confounding variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
dependent variable
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mode
the arithmetic average if a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mean
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above and half are below
median
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
range
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standard deviation
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
normal curve (normal distribution)
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
informed consent
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
debriefing
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
sampling bias
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average.
regression toward the mean
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
descriptive statistics
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
histogram
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
skewed distribution
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
inferential statistics
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
statistical significance
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
variable
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
SQ3R
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do
Validity
