UNIT 2 (CH 3/5) Flashcards
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neuron
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory reseptors to the brain and spinal cord
sensory neuron (afferent neuron)
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
motor neurons (efferent neuron)
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
interneurons
the bushy, braching extentions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dendrite
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to the muscles or glands
axon
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impluses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
myelin sheath
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
action potential
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
threshold
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
synapse
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to reseptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
neurotransmitters
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
reuptake
morphine within - natural . opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
endorphins
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
nerves
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
somatic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potential cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
Refractory period
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
reflex
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine system
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
hormones
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hornomes (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that helps arouse the body in times of stress
adrenal glands
the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
pituitary gland
tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
lesion
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on th scalp.
electroencephalogram (EEG)
a series of X-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body - also called a CAT scan
CT (computed tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a technique that uses magnetic fields ans radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, fMRI shows brain functions
fMRI (functional MRI)
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
brainstem
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
medulla
a nerve netowrk in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
reticular formation
the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum amd medulla - all senses, but smell are processed here
thalamus
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output an balance
cerebellum
doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
limbic system
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to raw emotions such as fear and anger
amygdala
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp). helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward (think 4 F’s!!)
hypothalamus
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural calles covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
cerebral cortex
cells in the nervour system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glial cells (glia)
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
frontal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; received sensory input for touch and body postion
Parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, includes areas that receive information from visual fields
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
temporal lobes
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
motor cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Somatosensory cortex
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in promary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions ssuch as learning, remembering, , thinking, and speaking
association areas
the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reogranizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
plasticity
the formation of new neurons
neurogenesis
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
corpus callosum
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
split brain
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
cognitive neuroscience
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
dual processing
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental behavior
behavior genetics
every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around you
environment
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chromosomes
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
genes
the proportion of variation among individual that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
heritablity
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
interaction
the subfield of biology that studies molecular structure and function of genes
molecular genetics
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
evolutionary psychology
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likelybe passed on to the succeeding generations
natural selection
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all genetic material in the organism’s chromosomes
genome
twins who develop from a single egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
identical twins (monozygotic twins)
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but share a fetal environment
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
mutation
the cell’s life support center
cell body
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
all-or-none response
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action - it mimics the neurotransmitter
agonists
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
antagonist
a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage (conscious) memories of facts and events
hippocampus
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
blindsight
processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
sequential processing
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
heredity
above or “in addition to” genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
epigenetics
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
social script
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems
parallel processing
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
molecular behavior genetics
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
consciousness
periodic, natural loss of consciousness–as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
sleep
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythm
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
REM sleep
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
alpha waves
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
NREM sleep
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hallucinations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
hypnagogic sensations
the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3
delta waves
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
insomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
night terrors
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
dream
according to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent - hidden - content)
manifest content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
latent content
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
REM rebound
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
psychoactive drugs
disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
substance use disorder
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
tolerance
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
withdrawl
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
depressants
alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
alcohol use disorder (alcoholism)
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
barbituarates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
opiates
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
stimulants
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
nicotine
a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
cocaine
drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes
amphetamines
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
Methamphetamine
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
Ecstasy (MDMA)
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
hallucinogens
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
near-death experience (NDE)
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
LSD
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
THC
a social interaction in which one person (hypnotist) suggests to another (subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Hypnosis
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms/behaviors
Posthypnotic suggestion
A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behavior to occur simultaneously with others
Dissociation
