Unit 5 Flashcards
Cognitive Psychology
Memory
Active system that receives information from the senses, encodes it, stores it, and retreives the information from storage. Pieces of memory are called engrams.
Information Processing Model
Encoding- information that comes in is converted to a useable form in the brain. Sensory information into neural information (transduction).
Storage- holding onto the memory for a period of time.
Retrieval- getting the information out of storage.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
Sees memory as a simultaneous process. Allows people to retrieve multiple aspects of memory at once- not just from one stage at a time. We are encoding, storing, retrieving and taking in sensory information all at the same time.
Levels of Processing Model- Shallow and Deep
Memory’s duration depends on the depth to which the information is processed/encoded. Thinking about something on a deeper level and making connections to your own life, enables information to be retained longer and better.
Shallow- only surface features. Structural- physical and visual information. Phenomic- only auditory information.
Deep (semantic)- creating associations and relating to previous knowledge.
Sensory Memory
Information enters the nervous system through the sensory system- eyes, ears, etc… What is happening around you at any given time. Two types- iconic (visual), echoic (auditory).
Iconic Memory
Visual memory. Lasts for fractions of a second. Old information is constantly being replaced by new memory.
Sperling’s Partial Report Technique
A method of testing memory. Results: you can only “partially” report the stimuli in front of you because you can only pay attention to so many stimuli at once.
Eidetic Memory
The ability to access visual iconic memory over a long period of time. Popularly known as photographic memory.
Echoic Memory
Auditory memory. Limited to what can be heard at any given moment. Have you ever asked, “what?”, waited a few moments, processed what was said to you, and then able to answer it? That’s because your echoic memory is constantly at work, but it wasn’t until you gave more attention to the question that you processed its meaning.
Short Term Memory
If an incoming message is important enough to enter consciousness, it will be moved from sensory memory to STM. Lasts 12-30 seconds without rehearsal. Mostly auditory memories- like a conversation in our own heads. Some may be visualized- popularly known as the “visual sketchpad” in our minds.
Baddeley and Working Memory
The newer model of short-term memory. An active system that processes the information. What you are working on currently and manipulating. An old model of STM said only new information enters and it is encoded from there. But really, most of what enters short term is already a long-term memory, but in a new situation. Newest model of working memory states that the central executive pulls out necessary information from long-term and works with it. Uses either new visual or verbal information to attend to the situation.
Capacity
Digit Span Tests- series of numbers read, and then you are asked to recall the information.
George A. Miller- research on capacity of STM is 7 items; plus or minus 2. 5-9 bits of information on average remembered. You can “fool” STM into holding more information. “Chunking” information- into smaller pieces. Like a phone number or SSN.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Continuing to pay attention to the information in STM. Repetition of an action. Like repeating the lines to a play. Once rehearsal stops, decay occurs.
Self-Referent Encoding
You are more likely to remember something when you involve a personal aspect of yourself into the information.
Long Term Potentiation
Persistent strengthening of synapses in the brain based on recent activity. The more you practice or rehearse something, the more connections that are made in your brain.
Long Term Memory
All information that is kept (more or less) permanently. Scientists believe it is limitless. It is a relatively permanent change in the brain when a memory is formed. Consolidation occurs- the changes that take place in the brain as memories are formed. More likely to store memories that are important to us.
Elaborative Rehearsal
A way to transfer information from STM to LTM by making the information meaningful! Best method for learning is to create as many memory tricks and real-life examples as possible.
Implicit Memory
Memories for things that people know how to do. Closely related to a procedural memory- how to do things step-by-step.
Explicit Memory
Memories for things that people know. Requires conscious thought (dates, events). Two parts- semantic and episodic.
Semantic Memory
The awareness of meanings of words, concepts, terms, math skills, etc… Knowing the “semantics” is knowing the “meaning”.
Episodic Memory
Memories of day-to-day occurrences. Sometimes known as an autobiographical memory. The more meaningful the event- the more likely you are to remember the details.
Semantic Network Model
Assumes that information stored in the brain in a connected fashion- are stored more closely together.
Prospective Memory
Enables us to remember that we need to perform a task later.
Retrieval Cues/Mnemonic
Most issues in retrieval deal with how a memory was put in. You can use cues to help you retrieve memories. Retrieval cues- a stimulus for remembering (memory tricks). Mnemonics: Method of loci- using visualizations in the environment. Acronyms- abbreviation of components. Link Method- creating links in a list of words. Narrative Method- creating a story to remember. Peg-Word Method- linking words and numbers.
Schemas and Clustering
Schemas- the brain organizes information into various categories. Clustering- grouping information to make memorization easier.
Encoding Specificity and State Dependent Learning
Encoding specificity- tendency for the retrieval of a memory to be improved if under the same (specific) conditions in which the memory was encoded. State dependent learning- memories formed in a certain psychological state will be easier to remember in a similar state.
Recall
Memories retrieved with no external cues. Retention is keeping this information long-term.
Recognition
Looking at or listening to information and matching it to what is already in memory.
Tip of the Tongue Effect
The feeling like you know the answer/term, but just can’t remember the whole name/word/concept.
Serial Position Effect
Fault in remembering the beginning and the end of a song/list/concept and forgetting the middle.
Primacy Effect
Remembering the beginning of a list (most rehearsal).
Recency Effect
Remembering the end of a list (last words heard, closest in recall).
Flashbulb Memories
Memories of highly emotional events (fear, horror, joy). Usually refers to collectively shared memories. Can be autobiographical like your wedding day.
Hindsight Bias
When we perceive events that have already happened as being more predictable than they actually were. It’s like looking back and thinking, “Oh, I knew that was going to happen!” even though we actually didn’t know it at the time.
Misinformation Effect
Misleading information that can become a part of the memory. What other people tell you interferes with your own memory of the event. Coined by Elizabeth Loftus.
Source Monitoring Error
Falsely remembering the source of a created memory.
Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve
Forgetting happens quickly within the first hour after learning, then tapers off gradually.
Displacement, Decay, and Motivated Forgetting
Displacement- newest memories push out other recent memories. Only so much can be processed in STM. Memory trace theory and decay- forgetting occurs as memory traces (synapse connections) decay. Motivated forgetting- forgetting negative events either consciously or unconsciously. This is also known as repression in Freudian theory.
Distributed Practice
Spacing out learning gives better retrieval than massed practice (all at once).
Proactive Interference
Tendency for old material to get in the way of new material. Like getting a new cell number and always recalling the old number.
Retroactive Interference
Tendency for newer information to interfere with old information. Like going back to Windows after using a Mac for a month.
Memory and the Brain- Where are Memories Stored?
Hippocampus- encoding memories. Cerebellum- procedural memories. Amygdala- memories of fear. For the most part, scientists believe memories are stored in the sulci of the frontal and temporal lobes.
Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memory from the point of infury and backwards.
Anterograde Amnesia
Loss of memory from the point of injury and onwards.
Alzheimer’s
1 in 8 people over 65- 60-80% of all cases of dementia. Primary issue is anterograde amnesia- forgetful about everyday tasks. Over time, memory becomes retrograde amnesia- erasing old memories. Abnormal deposits of tau proteins build up in the brain in “tangles”. Cause is unknown- only 5% of the disease seems to be genetic. Risk factors- high cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, obesity, type II diabetes, and lack of exercise. Keeping the brain active can prolong good cognitive health.
Huntington’s
Death of neurons, decline in mental abilities, results in dementia over time.
Parkinson’s
Brain slowly stops producing dopamine in the substantia nigra. Symptoms include forgetfulness in the early stages, followed by tremors of extremities, and amnesia as the disease progresses.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Deficiency in vitamin B-1. Usually from alcohol misuse. Causes inability to form new memories, long term memory gaps.
Cognition
Also known as “thinking”. Mental activity in the brain when a person is processing information (organizing, communicating, and understanding). Two forms of thought processing- mental images and concepts.
Mental Images/Mental Rotation
Mental images- representations that stand for objects or events and have picture-like quality. Mental rotation- the ability to turn images and view different angles in our minds.
Cognitive Maps
A visual representation of one’s environment.
Concepts
Ideas that represent a class of objects, events, or activities.
Formal Concepts
Those with strict definitions/rules.
Natural Concepts
Those formed through experiences.
Prototype
An object that fits defining characteristics of a concept.
Problem Solving
Goal that must be reached by behaving a certain way.
Decision Making
Evaluating and choosing from several alternatives.
Mental Chronometry
Reaction time while problem solving.
Convergent Thinking
A problem that is seen to only have one answer.
Divergent Thinking
A problem that can be seen to have many possibilities or solutions.
Trial and Error
Trying one solution after another until you find one that works.
Algorithms
Step by step procedures to get a correct solution.
Working Backwards
You want to get to a new friend’s house; you know the destination but need to work backwards to find the fastest route.
Subgoals
Breaking down a large goal into smaller tasks.
Heuristic
A “mental shortcut”. Think through possible problems to pick the best one.
Representative Heuristic
Assumes that anything/anyone that shares characteristics of a category belongs to the category.
Availability Heuristic
Our estimation on the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory/think of examples.
Single Feature Model
Decision making strategy in order to make the simplest choice among many alternatives.
Elimination by Aspects Model
Creating a pro-con list and eliminating alternatives one characteristic at a time.
Loss Aversion
When decision making, we choose options that avoid loss and acquire gains.
Functional Fixedness
Getting “fixated” on a certain “function” of an object.
Confirmation Bias
Searching for evidence that fits your belief and ignoring evidence to the contrary.
False Consensus Effect
Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs.
Scripts
Expected behaviors in certain situations.
Creativity
Solving problems by combining ideas and behavior in new ways.
Intuition
Coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of the thought process involved.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Believing that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability will become higher or lower if the process is repeated.
Intelligence
Ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and solve problems.
Speed: Processing, Perceptual, Neurological
Processing- refers to how quickly someone can process and analyze information. Perceptual- the ability to quickly process and interpret sensory information. It involves how efficiently we can perceive and make sense of the world around us using our senses. Neurological- the speed at which the brain processes and analuzes information. It involves how quickly we can perceive, understand, and respond to stimuli.
Aptitude
Tests a skill.
Achievement
Tests knowledge.
Stanford Binet IQ Test
Binet Mental Ability Test- assessing mental “age” of kids at different learning levels. Stanford Binet IQ Test- Terman adopted the test and revised it. Divide mental age by chronological age and multiply this by 100 to get an intelligience quotient score.
Wechsler Test
Upset that the Stanford Binet test was meant for children, but also administered to adults. Created a specific test for adults (WAIS-IV). Later created specific categories for preschool children (WPPSI-IV) and elementary/middle school children (WISC-IV).
Spearman/Two Factor Test
Charles Spearman- two factor intelligence. G Factor- general intelligence: the ability to reason and solve problems. S Factor- specific intelligence: task specific abilities like music, business, art.
Gardner/Multiple Intelligences
9 types of intelligence based on different strengths- verbal, musical, mathematical, visual, movement, interpersonal (understanding others), intrapersonal (understanding yourself), naturalist (recognize patterns in nature), existentialist (philosophize human life and death in a “big picture”.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
3 main intelligences: analytic (the ability to break down problems), creative (the ability to deal with new concepts and tasks), practical (“street smarts” or how to get through life and interact/communicate).
Reliability and Validity
Reliability- testing and retesting and getting the same results. Validity- degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Crystallized Intelligence
Using knowledge accumulated over time.
Fluid Intelligence
Ability to problem solve and pick up new skills.
Intellectual Disability
A person who exhibits deficits in mental abilities. IQ below 70. Adaptive behaviors (ability to take care of oneself- eat, clean, groom) are below age level. DSM V (diagnostic statistical manual) determines level of severity. Causes- environmental, heredity, chromosomal, birth defects.
Giftedness
IQ above 140. Not more susceptible to mental illnesses as previously thought. Only those with IQ’s above 180 were found to have any social issues as children.
Savant Syndrome
Gifted abilities in a range of skills including math, drawing, music, etc… Usually coincides with other neurodivergences.
Rosenthal Effect
Higher expectations lead to increased performance. Rosenthal study- teachers were told to create higher expectations for certain students and these students performed better. Sometimes called the Pygmalion Effect.
Flynn Effect
IQ scores have been on the rise since the 1930s. However, it cannot be due to genetics because it hasn’t been enough time for a large evoloutionary change. There must be environmental influences.
Emotional Intelligence
Accurate awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions, facilitate thinking, attain goals, and understand what other’s feel. Being able to correctly judge other’s experiences and expressions. Higher emotional intelligence linked to higher intelligence in other areas.
Language
A system for combining symbols (such as words) to create meaningful statements.
Grammar
System of rules governing language.
Phonemes
Basic units of sound in language.
Morphemes
Smallest units of meaning within language including prefixes and suffixes.
Semantics
The meaning of words and their syntax (sequence).
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The words we use determine how we think. So the words we use are relative to our culture.
Cognitive Universalism
Concepts are universal and influence the development of language.
Metalinguistic Awareness
The ability to relfect on the use of language.
Genie Wiley
Born in 1957. From 20 months until 13 years, socially isolated and abused. Did not acquire language in childhood. Captured by welfare services in 1970. Lived with a teacher and head of research team from 13-18. Lived with mother for a few months, who abandoned her again. Moved to several mental institutions. Previously it was believed that language acquisition was impossible after age 5… Genie Wiley proved this to be incorrect.
