Unit 1 Flashcards
Scientific Foundation of Psychology
Confidentiality
No data can be traced back to a single experiment
Debriefing
Inform participants of true nature of the study when it is over
Protection From Risks
Must be informed if there are known risks
Right to Withdraw
Can leave right away, no questions asked
Justification
Deception (telling the participant they are measuring one thing, when really, they are measuring another) must be justified
Informed Consent
Participants decide to participate after study is explained
Humanitarian
People come first; well-being outweighs science
APA
American Psychological Association- founded in 1892. Contains the IRB (Institutional Review Board) and is made of 53 divisions representing specific areas. It works to advance the science and profession of psychology concerning both humans and animals
Animals Research- the 3 R’s and the IACUC
IACUC: Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Replacement: Animals should be replaced with invertebrates when possible.
Refinement: Regulations should minimize harm; appropriate anesthesia used.
Reduction: Number of animals minimized.
Type I and Type II Error
Type I: A false positive. When an investigator rejects a null that is true- researcher says that their hypothesis is true when it’s not.
Type II: A false negative. When an investigator fails to reject a null that is actually false- researcher says there is no link when there is.
Null Hypothesis- Reject and Fail to Reject
A general statement that there is no relationship between 2+ variables. The commonly accepted hypothesis.
Fail to reject the null: assumes that the null is true.
Reject the null: assumes that the alternative research hypothesis is true through testing and retesting
Meta-analysis
The statistical combination of the results of multiple studies addressing a similar research question
Statistical Significance
The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was collected
T-Test - ANOVA
Examines 2 groups and decides if the data is significant.
ANOVA: a specific T-test that can look at 2+ groups
P-Value
0.5% statistical significance. 5% likely that the results are just due to chance. 95% likely that the results are accurate. Measuring the height of 500 students. Majority of students would not be extremely short or tall. If the probability that results are due to chance is less than 5% (0.5) they are confident their results were not due to chance
Z-Score
A unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean.
Positive: a number above the mean
Negative: a number below the mean
Calculation: your score minus the mean score divided by the SD
Percentile Score
How your score compares to the rest of the population- how far it is from 0. The median is the 50th percentile- where 50% lie below and 50% lie above. You want to be in a higher percentile.
Range
The gap between the lowest and highest score- subtract the lowest score in the data from the highest score
Variance
How spread out the scores are from one another
Skewed Distributions- Positive and Negative
If one of its tails is longer than the other it contains outliers.
Positive: long tail in the positive direction- contains more low scores
Negative: long tail in the negative deirection- contains more high scores
Standard Deviation
A measure of viability that indicates the average distance between the scores and the mean.
Low: data points are very close to the mean
High: data points are spread out over a large range of values.
Scores above mean: positive deviation
Scores below mean: negative deviation
Larger deviation = spread out scores
Normal Distribution
Means there is no skew. A frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical bell-shaped curve- normal distribution. Can measure variables such as height, weight, and IQ. Can divide the curve into sections and predict how much of the curve falls within each section
Measures of Central Tendency- mean, median, and mode (and bimodal)
Measures of central tendency: a number that describes something about the “average” score of a distribution.
Mean: the average score- add together, divide by number of total scores
Median: the middle score- midpoint of a set of values
Mode: the most frequent score- graphed in a frequency distribution (more than 1 = bimodal)
Inferential Statistics
What can you infer or assume about the data?
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics: a branch of mathematics, helps categorize information, makes inferences.
Descriptive: what is the data showing?
Bar graphs with no spaces between bars. Height of bars indicates frequency of a group of scores.
Falsifiability
Must be present in all theories- the possiblitiy that an assertion can be shown false. Not meaning the results are false, but that the experiments can be shown as false. This eliminates other factors and means the experiment is testable.
Demand Characterstics
Participants go into an experiment and “figure out” what the researcher is trying to study. May subconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, you knew all along
Hawthorne Effect
Some people may work harder and perform better when they know they are in an experiment. Some people may change their behavior due to attention from the researcher rather than the manipulation of the IV
Generalizability of Results
When analyzing results, results from sample population are applied to the greater population
Replication
When analyzing results, are the same results obtained? If so, retest more, could eventually be considered a theory
Steps to the Scientific Method
Scientific Method: an approach to gathering info and answering questions. Errors and biases are minimized. 1. Make an observation. 2. Ask a question. 3. Form a hypothesis or testable explanation. 4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis. 5. Test the prediction
Applied Research
Scientific inquiry that focuses on developing practical solutions to real-world problems
Basic Research
Scientific research that aims to increase knowledge and understanding about the natural world without having any practical or immediate applications
Illusory Correlation
Myths and legends in statistics. Seeing what you want to see based on your own interpretations. For example, the more your knee hurts, the more likely it is to rain.
Cross-Sectional Study
Method in which data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age-less expensive and time consuming than longitudinal studies. For example, a 5 year old, a 4 year old, and a 3 year old. Data only collected once.
Longitudinal Study
Method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characterstics change or remain the same during development. Very time consuming. Participants may disappear mid-study.
Order Effects, Social Desirability Bias, Non-Response Bias
Order Effects: positioning of questions in a survey may influence the outcome. Participants may start to guess what the experiment is studying.
Social Desirability Bias: want to appear in a good light to researcher
Non-Response Bias: does not respond to certain questions in the survey if they are uncomfortable or don’t know
Survey
Information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions. Most practical way to gather data on large numbers of people. May include interviews and questionnaires.
Naturalistic Observation
Psychologists observe the subject in a natural setting without interfering- scientist conceals himself
Ex Post Facto
Research based on pre-existing condition. A non-experiment design
Correlation Coefficient
Describes the direction (positive or negative) and the strength (+1 or -1) of the relationship between 2 sets of variables.
Pearson Correlation (r): the extent to which the correlation is in a straight line on a scatterplot. r near +1 or -1 is a strong correlation. The closer r is to 0, the weaker the relationship.
Correlational Studies
The measuring of a relationship between 2+ varaibles or sets of data. No cause and effect. For example, people who carry lighters are more likely to get cancer; confounding variables- genetics. Correlation does not equal causation.
Negative Correlation
As one variable increases, the other decreases. The more hours of One Tree Hill you watch, the less likely you are to finish your homework
Positive Correlation
As one variable increases, the other increases. As one decreases, the other also decreases. The more you practice driving, the more likely you are to pass the driving test. The less time you spend perfecting your dance routine, the less likely you are to win the competition.
Convenience Sampling
Readily available participants. College freshmen participating in research studies
Representative Sample
Must include people who fit the population studied. Seniors at Mt. Si, if looking at college acceptances
Sample Population
The small group of participants, out of a total number available, that a researcher studies. Mt. Si students
Population
Total group of people under study. High school students
Stratified Random Sample
Mixing random sampling groups to decrease bias
Random Sample
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being repeated. Every 20th name on enrollment. It decreases sampling bias. This first, then random assignment
Group Matching
Creating a population based on a certain age, gender, demographic, etc… The purpose is to receive consistent results
Double-Blind Experiment
Decreases occurrences of self-fulfilling prophecy. Neither the experimenter nor the participants know which ones received that treatments (both parties are blinded).
Single-Blind Experiment
The participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment. The experimenter knows who has what (one party is blinded).
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A researchers expectations influence their own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories
External Validity
Can the study be generalized to other contexts? Need a random sample and a representable sample
Predictive Validity
Degree to which test scores accurately predict scores on a criterion measured. Does a college admissions test score predict a college GPA?
Construct Validity
How well a test measures that concept it was designed to evaluate
Validity
Accuracy. Is the test measung what it is supposed to measure?
Reliability
Consistency. If you retest, are the results the same?
Theory
Highly tested hypothesis. A set of assumptions used to explain phenomena
Hypothesis
A prediction about behavior that is tested through scientific research
Confounding/Extraneous Variables
Undesirable variable that may influence the relationship of the varibiables the experimenter is examining. If they skew the data, they are known as confounding variables. Smoking causes heart disease- confounding variables: genetics, diet, other pre-existing health problems
Operational Definitions
Describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within your study. This makes the experiment valid. Hypothesis: eating cheese causes violent behavior. What do you mean by cheese? What do you mean by violent behavior? How can it be measured?
Placebo Effect
A change in participant’s behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment
Random Assignment
Randomly assign people to the experimental and control groups. This helps ensure that the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study, which makes it safer to assume to treatments caused any differences between groups that the experimenters observe at the end of the study
Control Group
The group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group- but they DO NOT receive the treatment (what the IV is testing)
Experimental Group
The group that receives treatment
Dependent Variable
The variable that changes in relation to the IV. Study examining if TV violenve (IV) increases aggression in children
Independent Variable
The experimenter changes or alters the IV to observe its effects. The number of hours you study (IV) affects your performance on an exam (DV)
Experiments
A scientific procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the likelihood of something previously untried. Can determine cause and effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated.
Social Psychologist
Study groups and how they influence individual behavior
Personality Psychologist
Study how patterns of thinking, feeling and behavior differs from individual to individual. They are interested in understanding personality traits and how a person’s personality traits affect the person as a whole.
Educational Psychologist
Helps young people with emotional or learning problems. Develops new instructional devices, device tests, and evaluates teaching methods
Cognitive Psychologist
Studies how humans process, store, and interpret information. Focus on the mental states of human beings, studying how individuals perceive, remember, and interpret their surroundings.
Biological Psychologist
Researches brain functions to understand human behaviors and how the effects of mental illnesses or injuries can cause a response in human behavior. Can prescribe medication.
Developmental Psychologist
Studies physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout life and studies childhood through adulthood and dying. Cannot prescribe medication
Positive Psychologist
Encourages people to focus on positive outcomes and to always find effective ways to live a positive life. Focus on the right of one rather than the worst. Cannot prescribe medication.
Psychometric Psychologist
Creates assessment tools, measurement instruments, and models in order to gauge different parts of somone’s mind and behavior to arrive at a treatment. Cannot prescribe medication
Industrial Organizational Psychologist
Focuses on psychological assessments, interventions, and organizational strategies. Cannot prescribe medication
Community Psychologist
Works to solve/prevent problems between people in certain communities. Cannot prescribe medication
Psychiatrist
Works on dealing with anxiety, depression, drug or alcohol abuse, suicidal thoughts, and performs procedures and neuro-evaluations. Can prescribe medication
Counseling Psychologist
Helps people deal with anxiety, depression, changes in life, and many other mental problems. Cannot prescribe medication
Clinical Psychologist
Help solve behavioral issues related to mental health. Cannot prescribe medication
Biopsychosocial Perspective/Eclectic Perspective
Combining ideas from multiple theories.
Biological influences: genetic predispositions
Psychological influences: emotional responses
Socio-Cultural influences: how the environment changes us
Evolutionary Perspective
Darwinism: our behaviors increase our chance of survival
Natural Selection: traits that contribute to reproduction and survival are likely to be passed on
(Modern functionalism)
Socio-Cultural Perspective
Behavior is influenced by the rules and expectations of social groups and cultures
Humanistic Perspective
Behavior reflects internal personal growth. We have free will.
Cognitive Perspective
Behavior is the consequence of brain activity that effects mental activities. How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
Biological Perspective
Neuroscience. Behavior is a result of chemical processes in the body
Behavioral Perspective
Behavior is the product of learning and associations. Rewards and consequences
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective
Behavior is the product of the unconscious. Unconscious motives are responsible for human behavior.
Free associations: thought experiments (unconscious thought to a specific word)
Freudian Slip: mix up of words = aggression/sexual
Dreams are the gateway to our most unconscious urges
*All introduced by Sigmund Freud
Mary Floy Washburn
Earned the first official female PhD and wrote the book “The Animal Mind” in 1908
Mary Whiton Calkins
Admitted by William James into his graduate seminar in 1890. Harvard’s president objected, and all the males in James’ class dropped out. She was tutored alone and outscored all male students
William James
Taught the first pscyhology class at Harvard in 1875. Wrote the first psychology textbook: The Principles of Psychology
Functionalism
Considers the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings. Believes that functions, like smell, developed because they are adaptive
Edward Titchener
Developed structuralism. Trained people to use introspection (reflection) to figure out how their thoughts are structured
Structuralism
Behavior is the process of conscious experiences from the structures of the mind, and the organization of these experiences from birth to death. Developed by Edward Titchener
Empiricism
The belief that knowledge originates from experience. Science relies on observation and experimentation. Formed by John Locke
Introspection
Introduced by Edward Titchener. Reflection
G. Stanley Hall
Wundt’s American student. Established the first US lab at John Hopkins
Wilhelm Wundt
“Father” of pychology. Founded the first psychology laboratory. Established psychology as a formal field of study in 1879.
John Locke
Believed the mind at birth is a blank slate. Helped form modern empiricism
Psychology
The study of the mind or spirit. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Study of both human and animals bahvior
