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AP Psych > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

Biological Bases of Behavior and Sleep

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1
Q

Darwin

A

Believed in the theory of evolution which focuses on how species change over time. He believed that human behavior and traits also evolved through natural selection.

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2
Q

Recessive and Dominant Genes

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Recessive: genes that are overshadowed or masked by dominant genes which are genes that are expressed and have a stronger influence on traits.

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3
Q

Genotype and Phenotype

A

Genotypes: genetic makeup or combination of genes an individual has (instructions). Phenotype: the observable traits or characteristics that result from those genes.

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4
Q

Endocrine System

A

A chemical communication system, using hormones, by which messages are sent through the bloodstream and affect tissues like the brain.

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5
Q

Glands

A

Special organs that produce and release substances like hormones or enzymes. They regulate various bodily functions and maintain overall health.

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6
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical substances that carry messages through the body in the blood. Produced by endocrine glands. Controlled by the hypothalamus. Only received at specific site: the organ they influence (ovaries and testes, adrenal glands, thyroid). Affect the growth of bodily structures such as muscles and bones (have target organs in which they interact). Affect metabolic processes such as how much energy you have.

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7
Q

Pituary Gland

A

The master gland or the control center.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): hormone produced in the pituary. Regulates levels of the steroid hormone cortisol, which released from the adrenal gland. Cortisol is the stress hormone- related to blood pressure, heart rate, anti-inflammatory actions, and immune responses.
Feedback system of ACTH: brain (hypothalamus) -> pituitary -> other glands -> hormones -> body and brain

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8
Q

3 Functions of the Nervous System- Input, Processing, Output

A

Input: when the nervous system receives info from the body’s sensory organs, like the eyes, ears, skin. Processing: once the input is received, the nervous system processes and interprets the info. Output: after processing, the nervous system sends signals to different parts of the body to produce a response.
The nervous system acts as a communication network.

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9
Q

Dendrites

A

Part of a nueron. Short thin fibers that stick out from the cell body. Receive messages/impulses from other nuerons and sends them to the cell body.

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10
Q

Cell Body (Soma)

A

Contains the cell nucleus. It is responsible for essential functions like protein synthesis and energy production to support the neuron’s activities.

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11
Q

Cell Nucleus

A

Contains the cell’s genetic material, which is the DNA. It controls all the activities of the cell and regulates the expression of genes.

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12
Q

Axon

A

Part of a nueron. A long fiber that carries the impulses away from the cell body and toward the dendrites of the next neuron.

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13
Q

Myelin Sheath

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Part of a nueron. White, fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon. Makes messages travel faster.

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14
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Spaces between the myelin sheath (works as insulation). Makes messages travel faster.

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15
Q

Axon Terminal

A

Part of a neuron. Branch out from the end of the axon. Positioned opposite the dendrite of another neuron. Send the messages to the next neuron’s receptor site.

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16
Q

Vesicles

A

Part of a neuron. Terminals (buttons) contain vesicles (sacs) that carry neurotransmitters toward the synapse.

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17
Q

Sensory Nuerons, Motor Neruons, Interneurons

A

Sensory (afferent neurons): receive information from senses.
Motor (efferent neurons): send information forward to muscles.
Interneurons: transmit messages from the senses to the muscles.

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18
Q

Central Nervous System

A

The brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord: transmits messages between body and brain.

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19
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Nerves branching out from the spinal cord. Takes information from bodily organs to the CNS then back to the organs.

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20
Q

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

A

Somatic: controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic: controls internal biological functions.

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21
Q

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

A

Sympathetic (fight or flight): prepares the body for emergencies. Speeds up the heart to accelerate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to body tissues.
Parasympathetic (rest and digest): conserves energy to enhance the body’s ability to recover from strenuous activity. Reduces heart rate and blood pressure to bring the body back to its normal resting state.

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22
Q

Resting Potential

A

When the inside of the nueron has a slightly negative charge (-70 mV). While in resting potential the charges are polarized- negative on the inside; positive on the outside.

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23
Q

Action Potential

A

When the neuron fires an impulse from the cell body down the axon.
1. Neuron is in a resting state
2. Dendrites receive the neurotransmitters
3. The neuron needs to obtain the minimum amount (the threshold) of charge to fire (-55 mV). This occurs when neurotransmitters reach the dendrites.
4. When the neuron goes into action potential it becomes depolarized- mix of positive and negative ions inside of the cell
5. The transfer of positive and negative ions across the axon’s membrane causes electrical charge
6. The transfer of ions is caused by the channels of sodium and potassium opening and closing
7. The sodium channels open and let in more sodium. The original portal closes simultaneously as the Potassium Channels open
8. The process continues down the axon (at each node) to the axon terminal
9. Terminal buttons turn the electrical charge into chemicals (neurotransmitters) and sends messages to the next neuron

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24
Q

Refractory Period

A

A period immediately following the action potential during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation. During the refractory period, the neuron must wait for reuptake of neurotransmitters to occur (reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters in the synapse. This allows the cell to go back to the resting state and threshold). The neuron is then hyperpolarized- charge inside the cell is much more negative (-80 mV or below). This inhibits the action potential from occuring and lasts about 2 milliseconds

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25
Q

Glial Cells

A

Non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis (balance) in the neuron. Forms myelin and provides support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

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26
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Neurotransmitter. Motor movement and memory. Too much- Depression. Too little- Dementia and Alzheimer’s.

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27
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Neurotransmitter. Helps with fight or flight response by increasing heart rate, blood flow, and energy. Too much- Anxiety. Too litte- Depression

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28
Q

Dopamine

A

Neurotransmitter. Motor control and reward-motivated behavior. Too much- Schizophrenia. Too little- Parkinson’s (decreased mobility).

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29
Q

Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)

A

Neurotransmitter. Inhibits (slows down) excitations and anxiety. Too little- seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

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30
Q

Substance P

A

Neurotransmitter. Pain perception. Released from sensory neurons.

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31
Q

Glutamate

A

Neurotransmitter. Involved in excitation. Too much- overstimulation of the brain (migraines, seizures)

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32
Q

Endorphins

A

Neurotransmitter. Relieve pain and elevate mood. Many addictive drugs deal with endorphins.

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33
Q

Serotonin

A

Neurotransmitter. Mood control. Too little- Depression

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34
Q

Presynaptic Cell and Postsynaptic Cell

A

Presynaptic: a neuron that sends signals to another neuron across a synapse. Releases neurotransmitters into the synapse to communicate with the postsynaptic cell which is receiving the nueron.

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35
Q

Synapse

A

A small gap between two neurons where they can communicate with each other. It’s where information is passed on. When an electrical signal reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, allowing the signal to be transmitted from one neuron to the next.

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36
Q

Reuptake

A

Reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters in the synapse. This allows the cell to go back to the resting state and threshold.

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37
Q

All-or-None Principle

A

A neuron fires at full strength every time. Needs to be stimulated passed the threshold level to fire.

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38
Q

IPSP and EPSP

A

IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential): a small hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, meaning it becomes more negative. This makes it less likely for the postsynaptic neuron to fire an action potential and transmit a signal.
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential): a small depolarizatoin of the postsynaptic membrane, meaning it becomes more positive. This makes it more likely for the postsynaptic neuron to fire an action potential and transmit a signal.

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39
Q

Agonists, Antagonists, and Reuptake Inhibitors

A

Agonists: make neurons fire (mimic neurotransmitters)
Antagonists: stop neural firing (block neurotransmitters)
Reuptake inhibitors: block reuptake (more neurotransmitters left in the synapse, so more can reach receiving dendrites)

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40
Q

Brain Stem

A

Consists of medulla and pons. The oldest structure in the brain. Responsible for automatic survival functions.

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41
Q

Medulla

A

Controls breathing, heart rate, and reflexes

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42
Q

Pons

A

Sends signals to relax during REM sleep, reduces arousal (GABA) during sleep, controls the bladder, involved in facial expressions

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43
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Connects the brain stem to the cerebral cortex. Controls arousal and ability to focus attention

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44
Q

Cerebellum

A

Controls posture, balance, and voluntary movements

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45
Q

Thalamus

A

Integrates sensory input. A relay station for all information (except smell) to and from the cortex

46
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Part of the limbic system. Controls functions such as temperature control, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior (libido)

47
Q

Cerebrum

A

The main hemispheres of the brain

48
Q

Amygdala

A

Part of the limbic system. Controls emotions (mostly rage and fear)

49
Q

Hippocampus

A

Part of the limbic system. Associated with memory processing. If damaged, no new memories form.

50
Q

Limbic System

A

Contains the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus in the brain

51
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Top layer of the cerebrum. The body’s control and processing center. Splits into lobes.

52
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Concerned with reasoning, organization, and creative thinking. Contains motor cortex and Broca’s area (language)

53
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Where touch, taste, and pain are interpreted. Contains sensory cortex

54
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Concerned with hearing, memory, emotion, and language. Contains auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area (language)

55
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Where visual signals are processed. Contains visual cortex

56
Q

Parkinson’s and the Substantia Nigra

A

Parkinson’s: progressive order that effects movement. Substantia Nigra: controls movement and produces dopamine. In Parkinson’s, the substantia nigra and stratium (motor control) go under degradation. It is caused by severely decreased dopamine levels.

57
Q

Broca’s Area (and aphasia)

A

In the left hemisphere. It is the production of speech and broca’s aphasia is the inability to speak.

58
Q

Wernicke’s Area (and aphasia)

A

In the left hemisphere. It is understanding speech and wernicke’s aphasia is the inability to understand speech

59
Q

Homunculus

A

Used to describe a visual representation of how our brain perceives and processes sensory information from different parts of our body. It’s like a distorted “map” that shows which body parts have larger or smaller representation in our brain. It helps us understand how our brain prioritizes and processes sensory input.

60
Q

Left Brain and Right Brain

A

Both “communicate” to each other. Roughly mirror images of each other. Left: controls movements of the right side of the body. Verbal: speaking, language, reading, writing. Mathematical. Analytic: looking at individual parts. Right: nonverbal, spatial, holistic: combing parts that make up a whole (music and art)

61
Q

Corpus Collosum

A

What connects both of the hemispheres- a band of fibers.

62
Q

Split Brain Research and Sperry/Gazzaniga

A

The corpus collosum fibers are cut and split the hemispheres. Lessens the symptoms of severe grand mal seizures (epilepsy). Side effects: no longer any communication between the hemispheres. Patients are unchanged in intelligence, personality, and emotion. Sperry and Gazzaniga: first researchers to study split brain operations. Patient Paul S.- operated on to correct seizures. He was shown a snowy scene on the left and a chicken foot on the right of his field of vision. When asked to pick two images that match, he chose a snow shovel and chicken head. When asked why, he responded to clean the chicken coop and to match the foot. He didn’t remember the snowy scene.

63
Q

Lateralization

A

Each hemisphere is connected to the body in a crisscrossed fashion- contralateral or cross lateralization

64
Q

Plasticity

A

When the brain is damaged, it will find new ways to reroute messages. Children’s brains are more plastic than adults.

65
Q

Neurogenesis

A

The process of generating new neurons, or nerve cells, in the brain. It was once believed that the brain stopped producing new neurons after a certain age, but research has shown the neurogenesis can occur throughout our lives.

66
Q

Stereotaxic Instrument

A

A tool used in research to precisely target specific areas of the brain during experiments. It helps researchers place electrodes or inject substances into precise locations within the brain, allowing for more accurate and controlled studies.

67
Q

Lesion

A

Cuts into or removal of parts of the brain. Often to remove tumors or look for a change. Use stereotaxic instruments.

68
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

A clear and watery fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a cushion, absorbing shocks and providing nutrients to the brain. It also helps remove waste products from the brain.

69
Q

Reflex Arc

A

A super-fast, automatic response that our body does without us even thinking about it. It’s a pathway that involves a sensory neuron, an interneuron in the spinal cord, and a motor neuron. For example, when we touch something hot, the sensory neuron sends a signal to the spinal cord, which quickly sends a message back to our muscles to pull our hand away.

70
Q

Phineas Gage

A

In 1848, Phineas Gage was a railroad foreman. He demonstrated good judgment and had an uncanny ability to work well with others. In an attempt to clear a path for rails with dynamite, while Phineas was tamping down the powder, it suddenly exploded. The tamping iron of 13 pounds and 3 feet in length shot in the air through his head right below his left eye and exited through the top of his skull. He survived and lived for several years, but his personality changed greatly. He was now short-tempered, difficult to be around, and often said inappropriate things. Damaged parts of the frontal cortex prevented the censoring of thoughts.

71
Q

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

A

A medical imaging technique that uses X-rays and a computer to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. It helps doctors get a closer look at different structures, like organs, bones, and blood vessels to diagnose and monitor medical conditions.

72
Q

PET (Position Emission Tomography) Scan

A

A medical imaging technique that uses a small amount of radioactive material to visualize the metabolic activity of tissues in the body. It can help doctors detect and evaluate various conditions, such as cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders.

73
Q

SPECT (Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography)

A

Uses Gamma rays to get 3D image of the brain. Used to diagnose neuro-degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s

74
Q

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and fMRI (Functional MRI)

A

MRI: Imaging technique used to study anatomy of the brain. Magnetic field changes atoms in the brain. Shows where blood flow differs- tumors have higher blood flow. fMRI: Combines PET and MRI scans. Structures of the brain in a “movie”. Detects blood flow changes in real time.

75
Q

EEG (Electroencephalograph)

A

A machine used to record the electrical activity of large portions of the brain

76
Q

TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)

A

Stimulates small regions of the brain

77
Q

Physical Dependence/Psychological Dependence

A

Physical: body’s reliance on a substance to function properly. Psychological: someone feels a strong emotional or mental need for a substance.

78
Q

Withdrawal

A

Set of symptoms that occur when someone stops using a substance they have become physically dependent on. The symptoms vary depending on the substance, but common symptoms include cravings, irritability, anxiety, nausea, sweating, and insomnia.

79
Q

Tolerance

A

When your body becomes less responsive to the effects of a substance over time. This leads to increased substance use and potential risks.

80
Q

Depressants

A

Drug or endogenous compound that lowers neurotransmission levels. Examples include alcohol, tranquilizers, sedatives, and anxiolytics.

81
Q

Stimulants

A

Drug that increases the activity of the central nervous system. Examples include caffeine, nictotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and modafinil.

82
Q

Hallucinogens

A

A drug that causes hallucinations. Examples include LSD, psilocybin, peyote, DMT, PCP, and ketamine.

83
Q

Blood Brain Barrier

A

A protective barrier that separates the bloodstream from the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a filter, allowing certain substances, like oxygen and essential nutrients, to pass through while blocking harmful substances, toxins, and most medications from entering the brain.

84
Q

Conscious

A

Awareness of feelings, sensations, ideas, and perceptions. Alertness. 3 funtions: 1) restrict our attention. 2) provides a mental “meeting place”- memories, emotions, and motives. 3) creates a mental mode of the world that we can manipulate- we can act reflectively, not just reflexively (automatically)

85
Q

Preconscious

A

Freud’s Theory: information that is not currently in consciousness, but can be recalled voluntarily.

86
Q

Unconscious

A

Freud’s Theory: thought without awareness- what you cannot readily reach, driving on “autopilot” and feeling like, “how did I get here?”

87
Q

Brain Waves During Sleep- Beta, Alpha, Theta, Sleep Spindles, Delta

A

Beta: awake, alert
Alpha: slow, relaxed
Theta: capture attention and transport us to realm of tranquility
Sleep Spindles: brain wave “bursts”
Delta: large and slow, deep sleep

88
Q

Stages 1-3 of Sleep

A

Stage 1: Muscles relax, brain waves relax- low alpha amplitude, lasts 10 minutes, hypnic jerks occur
Stage 2: Brain (alpha) waves slow even more, sleep spindles are common, lasts 30 minutes, over course of the night you spend 1/2 of your sleep in this stage
Stage 3: Deepest delta wave sleep, hard to awaken sleeper, large waves occur more than half of the time, if awakened you feel disoriented, sleep walking and bed wetting is most likely to occur during this stage- no recollection of event, restorative theory of sleep- the human body heals itself during sleep

89
Q

Paradoxical Sleep (REM)

A

Active sleep, but large muscles in arms and legs are paralyzed. pulse rate/breathing irregular, hormones rise, face and finger twitch, dreams take place, increases in length throughout the night- starts at 15 minutes early in the night, up to 45 minutes late at night
REM Rebound: increased REM sleep length after periods of sleep deprivation, takes less time to get to REM sleep

90
Q

Sleep Inertia

A

Feeling of grogginess upon waking that interferes with the ability to perform mental or physical tasks

91
Q

Daydreaming

A

Spontaneous and self-generated shift of attention away from the external environment towards an internal mental state. It involves creating vivid and detailed mental images, scenarios, or narratives that are unrelated to the present moment. It can be triggered by boredom, relaxation, or a desire to escape from reality.

92
Q

Sleep Patterns and Age

A

Infants sleep for longer durations. As children grow older, their sleep patterns shift to a more consolidated nighttime sleep with fewer naps. Teenagers often experience a shift in their circadian rhythm which

93
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

Occur once during a 24-hour period. Sleep wake cycle.
Ultradian Rhythm: occur more than once a day. Various stages of sleep.
Infradian rhythms: occur more than once a month or season. Hibernation

94
Q

Circadian Rhythm and Jet Lag/Shift Work

A

Internal circadian rhythms do not match the external time on the clock. Takes one day for each hour change to adjust the rhythm.
The Night Shift: even those who switch their sleep cycle maintain these rhythms. Our body is attuned to light and dark- want to follow that pattern

95
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nuclei

A

Located in the hypothalamus. Controls sleep rhythm. Senses change in light and dark, sends messages to the pineal gland to release melatonin.

96
Q

Dreams

A

Mental activity that takes place during sleep. Usually composed of left-over thoughts from the day- the first dream often continues and connects a theme; by the end, the dreams seem random. May dream multiple times each night. Dreams become longer throughout the night. Any physical discomfort can cause nightmares- if you are less comfortable in cold, could be a correlation.

97
Q

Lucid Dreams

A

Dreams where you become aware that you’re dreaming while you’re still in the dream. Can control your dream.

98
Q

Latent vs. Manifest Content in Dreams

A

Freud distinguished two types. Latent: the (supposed) symbolic meaning. Manifest: the dream’s storyline. Content of dreams: negative emotional content- 8 out of 10 dreams. Failure dreams- dreams about being attacked, pursued, rejected, or left with misfortune. No solid evidence for Freud’s theory. Dreams vary by age, gender, and culture.

99
Q

Activation Synthesis Theory

A

Dreams are a result of the brain trying to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity- a dream is a way to make sense out of nonsense.
Information processing: dreams sort memories.
Physiological function: neural activity stimulates brain growth.
Cognitive theory: dreams are the embodiment of thought; events of the previous day

100
Q

Sleep Deprivation

A

Effects of sleep loss- fatigue, impaired concentration, irritability, depressed immune system, vulnerability to accidents, weigth gain from hormonal imbalance.
At 24 hours- attention decreases significantly.
At 36 hours- higher blood pressure, erratic hormones
At 48 hours- body starts shutting down, microsleeps occur: 30-60 seconds
At 72 hours: cannot control higher order mental processes

101
Q

Opiates

A

Depressant. Opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin). Depress neural activity.

102
Q

Parasomnias

A

Category of sleep disorders characterized by arousal or activation during sleep. Sleepwalking, night terrors, bruxism, and REM behavioral disorder (acting out dreams)

103
Q

Sleepwalking

A

Somnambulism

104
Q

Night Terrors

A

High alertness and appearance of being terrified.

105
Q

Bruxism

A

Teeth grinding

106
Q

REM Behavioral Disorder

A

Instead of experiencing the normal temporaty paralysis of your arms and legs during REM sleep, you physically act out your dreams. The onset can be gradual or sudden, and episodes may occur occasionally or several times a night.

107
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Uncontrollable sleep attacks. Amphetamines are a common treatment.

108
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Temporary stoppage in breathing forcing the person to wake up

109
Q

Hypnic Jerk

A

Myoclonus: sudden movement or flinch of body parts during stage 1 or 2 of sleep

110
Q

Hypnagogic Hallucination

A

Vivid sensory phenomena can occur during transition from wakefulness to light sleep

111
Q

Restorative Theory of Sleep

A

Sleep is essential for restoring and rejuvenating the body and mind.

112
Q

Adaptive Theory of Sleep

A

Sleep is an evolutionary adaptation that helps organisms conserve energy and avoid potential dangers during periods of inactivity.

AP Psych (9 decks)

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