Unit 5 Flashcards
Effortful Processing
Active processing of information that needs sustained conscious effort (집중을 들여 무엇을 배우거나 외움)
바이올린을 새로 배울때 effortful processing을 이용해서 연습도 하고 악기를 배운다
Automatic Processing
unconscious processing of well-learned material (muscle memory) 우리가 보통 뜨개질이나 신발끈을 묶을때 무의식적으로 빨리 끝낼 수 있는 이유
Deep Processing
processing information with consideration to its meaning (create stronger memories because involves elaborative rehearsal)
- close attention, focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else (leads to better recall than shallow processing)
Shallow Processing
Structural/Phonemic Recognition
Structural recognition (시각)
- encoding information with the use of visual and physical characteristics
Phonemic recognition (소리?)
- encoding information using auditory characteristics
Shallow processing
- encoding aspect is relatively simple or straightforward (result in immediate forgetting rather than long term memorization)
Selective Attention
Ability to focus your conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while blocking out competing stimuli
ex) cocktail party effect
- 파티에서 시끄럽지만 옆 사람이랑 대화할때 selective attention은 사용해서 대화를 이어감 (대화에만 집중, 파티에서 나오는 큰 노래들 무시)
Divided Attention
Ability to focus on multiple stimuli simultaneously. Known as multi-tasking
- decreases the amount of attention placed on one task if there is more than one
- makes it harder to focus on a singular task
ex) 내가 친구랑 대화를 하면서 숙제를 하는 도중에, 친구가 질문이 있으면 내가 숙제에 쏟는 집중력이 저하됨
Metacognition
Ability to control and be aware of your own thoughts
ex) 내가 시험 문제를 풀다가 문제에 대한 답이 확실하지 않을때, 내 답을 인지하고 다른 문제들을 풀었다가 다시 돌아와서 그 답을 고칠때
- useful skill to have because it helps you become more aware of your own learning and thinking processes.
Short term memory
type of memory that can only be stored for a brief period of time (about 30 seconds) (has limits)
ex) 우리가 전화하다가 적을 일이 생길때 메모에다가 막 적고, 그 내용을 다 쓰면 메모지를 휙 버리듯
Long term memory
Has no limits like short term memory
ex) 도서관에 있는 책들처럼 (정보) 우리가 필요한 정보가 있으면 책 찾듯이 그냥 기억 속에서 끄집어냄
Explicit Memory
stored memory of facts
ex) knowing how many continents there are
내가 특정한 분야에 대한 정보를 기억하고 싶으면 마치 폴더에서 원하는 분야를 찾고 열어보는 느낌
Semantic/Episodic
semantic - the memory of facts
Episodic - memories of personal experiences
ex) 내가 친구한테 어제 저녁에 무엇을 먹었는지, 내가 처음 수영을 한 게 언제인지 기억해서 말하는 것
Implicit Memory
Type of long term memory that is remembered unconsciously.
(procedural memory)
procedural memory is the memory of how to do repetitive everyday tasks (riding a bike, typing a shoe, driving a car)
Sensory memory
Echoic/Iconic
sensory memory involves the five sense
It is the ability to retain information about sensory information long enough to be recognized after the original stimulus has ended
ex) recognizing the smell of baking cookies
Echoic memory - memory of sounds (last about 3-5 seconds)
Iconic memory - the memory of visual stimuli (image) (last about a second)
Prospective memory
remembering to perform an action at a certain time
ex) remembering to take medicine after eating breakfast, or watering plants once a week
prospective memory is an important aspect of routine daily life
Flashbulb Memory
clear memory of an emotionally significant event
flashbulb memories are believed to be highly detailed, clear, and accurate but not necessarily more accurate than other types of memories.
highly detailed snapshots of moments and circumstances surrounding shocking or emotionally charged events that remain clear and vivid in one;s mind for a lifetime
내가 만약 수영을 하다가 상어를 만나면 그 장면을 스냅샷 한 것 처럼 평생 기억하는 것 (왜냐하면 엄청 shocking해서 기억이 날 수 밖에 없다)
Echoic memory
the memory of sound (소리)
type of a sensory memory
Iconic memory
the memory of visual stimuli (시각)
type of a sensory memory
Semantic memory
the memory of facts, ideas, and concepts
type of an explicit memory
Episodic memory
the memory of personal experiences
type of an explicit memory
Encoding
the process of transforming information into a form that can be stored and retrieved by the brain
Visual Encoding
the process of remembering visual images
Shallow type of processing
it is easily forgotten
ex) remember a list of words with each word only being known for a second
단어를 외울때 잠깐 보면 금방 까먹는다 (그냥 대충 그 단어가 길었는지, 대문자로 적혀있었는지만 기억하지 뜻은 기억하지 못한다)
Acoustic Encoding
Processing and ecoding of sound
Deeper than visual encoding but
not deep as semantic encoding
= Intermediate (중간) encoding
ex) know the lyrics to a song that you enjoy
Enhancing Encoding
We can enhance how well we remember something by rehearsing the information
Maintenance Rehearsal
the process of repeatedly thinking about or verbalizing a certain piece of information
ex) 계속 반복해서 외우는 것
내가 누구의 전화번호를 외울때 계속 반복히 말하면서 번호를 누른다
Elaborative Rehearsal
the process of using active thinking about the meaning of the term that needs to be remembered rather than just repeating the word/information over and over again
ex) maintenance rehearsal 처럼 반복해서 외우는 것이 아닌 진정한 meaning을 알고 생각을 하면서 머리 속에 박게 하는 것
Self - Reference effect
when you apply a situation to yourself, you are more likely to remember what the situation is
단어들을 외울때 실제로 내가 겪었던 일들과 엮으면 더 이해하고 외우기가 편하다
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model
A theory of human memory that posits 3 distinct stages of information processing
(encoding, storage, and retrieval)
Chunking
the process of grouping information to be stored or processed as single concepts
ex) 0-1-0-5-2-2-4-2-6-0-9 를 외울때 우리는 Chunking으로 010-5224-2609로 편하게 기억을 한다 (끊어서 외운다)
Type of Short-term memory (STM)
Similar terms
- mnemonic Devices 우리가 기억을 할 떄 더 쉽게 기억 할 수 있는 technique
Hierarchies
Help us retrieve information quickly and efficiently
Schemas
Concept or framework that helps individuals make sense of information
you are more likely to believe the information that supports your belief and would ignore information that disagrees with your viewpoint.
prototype
Mental image or the best representative of a certain categories
우리가 흔히 참새가 사람보다 작을때라고 할때 우리 이미지 속에 참새와 사람이라는 prototype을 비교하는 것이다
Whenever you use adjectives like “smaller” or “quicker,” you are automatically comparing to a
Retrieval
Process of recalling information from memory such as feelings, images, and events
Retrieval Cues
stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory or piece of information from your LTM
ex) 보물찾기 할때 보물(the memory)를 향해 여러 힌트들을 줬을때에 그 힌트들이 retrieval cues
Serial Position Effect
how people tend to remember information in a list that is mentioned first or last (middle is more forgotten)
Recency Effect - remembering the last thing that was said
Primacy Effect - remembering the first thing that was said
Recency Effect
remembering the last thing that was said
Primacy Effect
Remembering the first thing that was said
Mnemonic Device
Enhance retention and memory
It is a tool that helps you remember an idea or phrase
ex) ROYGBIV - it is a mnemonic Device to memorize red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet
Method of Loci
mnemonic device in which a person memorizes information by placing each item to be remembered in different spatial locations
Locating things ini typical locations
내가 삼다수병을 항상 베란다 문 뒤에서 얻는 것처럼
Peg Word Mnemonic
Puts numbers and words together to help us memorize a scheme
ex) 1-sun 2-shoe 3-tree 4-door 5-hive
Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
The temporary inability to remember informations
ex) 너가 영화배우를 봤을때 딱! 이름이 기억이 안나 (이름을 알지만 갑자기 기억이 안나는 경우)
Priming
Activation of a memory by association
Hearing one stimulus leads to the activation of another
도미노처럼 하나가 activate (prime) 연속적으로 sequence 일어남
Context Dependent Memory
refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same time
(specifically remembering information in the same place we encoded it)
ex) 내가 우유가 마시고 싶어서 주방으로 갔는데 갑자기 기억이 안나서 다시 방으로 돌아왔더니 그제서야 우유를 마시고 싶었지! 하면서 다시 주방으로 가는 행동
State Dependent Memory
What we learn in one state will be easier to recall in that same state
state: 상태
ex) 우리가 취해서 차키를 어디다 놔둔 상태에서 정신을 차리면 차키를 어디다 뒀는지 기억이 안남. 하지만, 다시 취하면 우리가 차키를 어디다 놔뒀는지가 기억이 남 (어느 한 state가 되면 기억이 나는 기억들; 예시에서는 취해있는 state일때 기억이 난다)
Mood Congruent Memory
states that when humans store memories about an event, they don’t just store memory, they also store the emotion they felt at that time along with the memory. So if you are sad you recall unhappy events
: You recall memories that match your current mood more easily than memories that don’t align with your current mood
내가 지금 슬프면, 슬픈 기억들이 더 잘 떠오른다 행복한 기억들 보다
Constructed Memory
refers to false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred
It happens because our memory is not a perfect recorder of events and can be influenced by many factors
왜곡되거나 잘못 기억되있는 기억들
우리 뇌가 정확한 정보의 기억들만을 저장하는게 아니라는 것을 보여준다
Spacing Effect
says that people learn material easier and more effectively when it is studied several times over a long period of time rather than in a short period of time
Testing Effect
The testing effect is the finding that LTM is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing with proper feedback not just rereading the text over and over
Quiz yourself rather than just reading the info.
Hermann Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
a hypothesis that describes the decrease in ability of the brain to retain memory over time. It suggests that information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain
Retroactive Interference
When it becomes harder to recall old information because of learning new informations
(New information blocks old)
ex) 너가 만약 비번을 바꿨는데 이제 새로 바꾼 비번 때문에 옛날 비번이 기억이 안날때ㅇ
Proactive Interference
When it becomes harder to recall new information because of the learnt information in the past
(Old information blocks new)
ex) 너가 비번을 바꿨는데 옛날 비번을 기억하고 있어서 새로운 비번이 잘 기억이 안날때
Amnesia
Amnesia refers to partial or total loss of memory, typically resulting from brain injury, trauma, or illness.
건망증
Retrograde Amnesia
Occurs when someone is unable to recall their most recent memories/their general past
occurs after an emotional or physically traumatic event because there are some details that the victim does not want to remember
Anterograde Amnesia
when an individual is unable to form new memories
past memories (long term) can still be recalled, but ew have no awareness of it
Source Amnesia
Misattribution error
refers to an individual’s inability to remember how, when, or where knowledge was acquired while retaining factual knowledge itself
ex) 내가 노래의 가사를 기억하지만 그 가사가 어디서 나온 가사인지를 기억 못하는 (information을 알지만 그 source를 모르는)
Misinformation Effect
refers to false memories we create due to misinformation we receive after an event has occurred
ex) 내가 한 번 빨간색 차가 사고를 당하는 장면을 보고 바로 뒤에 어떤 파란 트럭이 지나가는 것을 봤다. 그 이후 내가 다시 그 차 사고 장면을 이야기 할때 나는 빨간색 차가 아니라 파란색 차라고 말하는 것
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated forgetting is a psychological defense mechanism where an individual subconsciously blocks out memories that are painful, traumatic or otherwise distressing.
일부러 기억을 못하도록 노력하는 것
Repression
Repression is a psychological defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously pushes away thoughts, feelings, or memories that cause discomfort or distress.
일부러 그 기억으로 부터 멀리하고 떨쳐내려고 한다
Hippocampus
Part of limbic system and in the temporal lobe
-responsible for formation of memory storage
If damage to left side = trouble remembering verbal information
If damage to right side = trouble recalling visual information
Thalamus
serves as a station to transmit sensory information to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
Basal Ganglia
The part where we could help form our procedural memories such as tying shoes
Long-term Potentiation
Strengthening of synapses based on recent activities (producing long lasting communication between neurons)
Algorithm
Step by step method that guarantees to solve a particular problem
ex) 요리로 비유를 하자면
순서대로 단계별로 하나씩 해내가면서 problem solve를 하는 방식
Heuristics
rules of thumb
that often involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others
Heuristics are the opposite of algorithms and are more result oriented (use mental set, schemas, prototypes, and concepts automatically when using heuristics
우리가 gps로 제일 최단 시간의 루트를 찾는 것과 비슷
When problem solving, think algorithms as the long way and heuristics as the shortcut
Trial and Error
Trial and error is a problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions until the correct one is found.
맞는 solution을 찾을때까지 다양한 strategy와 method 이용
mental set
when individuals try to solve a problem the same way all the time because it has worked in the past (하지만 과거에 됐다고 해서 현재 된다고 하는 법은 없기에 solving problems를 더 어렵게 만든다)
Intuition
직감
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning from something specific to something general, which puts your thought into concepts and groups
(Theory Hypothesis observation confirmation 순서로)
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning from something general to something specific. Think of mind-maps (more logical)
Information, pattern, tentative hypothesis, theory
Convergent Thinking
The more logical way of thinking, in whick we narrow the solutions to a problem till we find the best one (used in IQ and intelligence tests)
Divergent Thinking
The more creative way of thinking
think as brainstorming and diverging into different directions of thought
Rather than finding the best solution, divergent thinkers expand the number of solutions
Fixation
only thinking from one point of view.
The inability to approach a situation from different perspective (same as mental concept)
Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
candle problem
(뭔가, 사물의 고정관념을 깨고 그것을 어떻게 이용해서 푸는지. 여기서 대부분의 사람들은 functional fixedness로 인해서 사물을 잘 이용하지 못해서 문제를 못 풂)
Availability Heuristic
the ability to easily recall immediate examples from the mind about something
누가 만약에 빨간색 하면 떠오르는게 뭐야 라고 질문을 했을때
availability heuristic을 이용해서 사과라고 답함
Representativeness Heuristic
When you judge something based on how they match your prototype.
This leads us to ignore information and is honestly the stem of stereotypes
우리 prototype (머릿속에서의 고정관념)에 부합하지 않으면 무시해버리는 경향
Confirmation Bias
the tendency of individuals to support or search for information that aligns with their opinions and ignore information that doesn’t
우리가 찾고 싶은 정보나 사람들만을 고집해서 찾는 것
이러면 bias가 생갈 수 밖에 없다
Belief perseverance
the tendency to maintain one’s beliefs even after they have been discredited by factual information
Belief Bias
The tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on the plausibility of their conclusion rather than how strongly they support that conclusion
Halo Effect
When positive impressions of people lead to positive views about their character and personality traits
약간,그 사람이 attractive해서 그 사람의 성격이나 character를 positive하게 바라보는 경향 (이것도 cognitive bias의 일종)
Self-Serving Bias
When a person attributes positive outcomes to their own doing and negative outcomes to external factors
내가 시험을 봐서 좋은 점수가 나오면 내가 열심히 해서
하지만 점수가 안나왔으면 그건 내 잘못이 아니라 쌤 탓 (external factors)
Attentional bias
When people’s perceptions are influenced by recurring thoughts
We pay more attention to things that we are emotionally connected with or think about frequently
Actor-observer Bias
When a person might attribute their own actions to external factors and the actions of others to internal factors
대표적인 예로 내로남불
Anchoring Bias
When an individual relies heavily on the first piece of information given when making a decision
차를 살때 처음에 백만원이라고 부르고 더 네고를 해도 우리의 마음은 백만원을 낸다고 믿음
Hindsight Bias
when you think you knew something all along after the outcome has occurred
“I knew that”
Framing
framing impacts decisions and judgement. It’s the way we present an issue, and it can be a very powerful persuasion tool
10 % can die
90 % can live
둘중에 뭐를 택하느냐에 따라 느낌이 달라짐
Individualistic Culture
An individualistic culture is a type of culture in which people are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. It emphasizes personal achievement, independence, and competition.
Collectivist Culture
A collectivist culture is one where people are expected to prioritize group needs over their own personal needs. The focus is on community cooperation and interdependence.
Spearman’s general intelligence
A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas
한 과목이나 분야에서 월등함이 보이면 다른 곳에서도 월등함을 느낄 수 있다 g factor
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities
Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors
- Word Fluency
- verbal comprehension
- spatial ability
-perceptual speed
- numerical ability
- inductive reasoning
- memory
spearman이랑 비슷하게 한 분야에서 월등함을 보이면 나머지 6개에서도 보일 가능성이 있다
Gardner’s multiple intelligence
Our abilities are best classified into 8 independent intelligences
Linguistic
Mogical-Mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intrapersonal - someone that knows themselves
Interpersonal - someone that is good with people
Naturalistic
Sternberg’s triarchic theory
Our intelligence is best classified into 3 areas that predict real-world success
Analytic intelligence (being able to problem-solve and do well in school)
Creative intelligence (How well you can come up with your own ideas and solutions)
Practical Intelligence (Common sense)
Fluid Intelligence
the ability to solve problems logically and think in abstract ways
(thinking quickly and processing a lot of information at once)
Crystallized Intelligence
The sum of knowledge, facts, and skills an individual has acquired over their lifetime
Unlike fluid intelligence you may use heuristics
Flynn effect
the trend that there is an increase in intelligence testing scores over time
A good test must be
Standardized
Reliable
Valid
Grit
Grit is a personality trait that involves perseverance and passion for long-term goals, despite obstacles or failures.
Savant Syndrome
Perform poorly on intelligence tests and have serious intellectual disabilities (however, they have a certain talent that is above average)
Stereotype Threat
where someone may do worse on a test because they are told they aren’t good enough (because of the stereotypes that exist in society). If a Black woman is told she is incapable of passing a medical exam, she may doubt herself and the stress could impair her performance.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
States that humans are born with the capacity to acquire and produce language (we are all born with an understanding of language)
