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Health And Social Care > Unit 4- The Regulatory System > Flashcards

Unit 4- The Regulatory System Flashcards

1
Q

Where are the kidneys?

A

Back of the abdominal cavity, either side of the spinal column, below ribline

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2
Q

What are the three main functions of the kidney?

A

Ultrafiltration
Reabsorption
Osmoregulation

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3
Q

How does ‘dirty’ blood enter the kidney?

A

Under high pressure via the aorta

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4
Q

How does ‘clean blood’ leave the kidneys?

A

Via the vena cava

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5
Q

Where is urine stored and where does it come from?

A

Passes down the ureters and is stored in the bladder

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6
Q

How does urine pass out of the body?

A

Via the urethra

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7
Q

What are the two sections the kidney is divided into?

A

Cortex

Medulla

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8
Q

How is dirty blood fed to the cortex?

A

Renal artery

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9
Q

Which part of the kidney does urine leave?

A

Medulla, via the renal pelvis

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10
Q

What is the Central Nervous System composed of?

A

Brain and spinal chord

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11
Q

What are Nerve Impulses?

A

Signals flowing from nerves to the spinal chord, to the brain and back again

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12
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous System composed of?

A

Branching web of nerves to all parts of the body

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13
Q

What are sensory nerves?

A

Send messages to the brain and connect through spinal chord inside the back bone

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14
Q

What are motor nerves?

A

Send messages from brain to all muscles and glands in the body

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15
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system composed of?

A

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

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16
Q

What does the somatic nervous system consist of?

A

Motor neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles

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17
Q

What does the Autonomic nervous system consist of?

A

Motor neurons than control muscle movement

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18
Q

What is the Autonomic nervous system composed of?

A

Sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic nervous system

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19
Q

What is the brain made up of?

A

100 billion neurons knotted together like pieces of thread

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20
Q

What is the function of neurons?

A

Carry and send electrical signals from peripheral nerves to the brain and back again

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21
Q

What does a neuron consist of?

A

Cell body
Dendrites
Axon

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22
Q

How many dendrite branches can a single neuron have?

A

50000

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23
Q

What is the function of the Axon?

A

Carries nerve impulses from the cell body to the dendrite of the next neuron

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24
Q

How do electrical signals travel from the axon terminal to the next dendrite?

A

Crosses the synaptic gap via neurotransmitters

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25
What is the myelin sheath?
Lining of the axon that speeds up the passage of nerve impulses
26
What is the top speed of a nerve impulse?
395ft/s
27
What is the ratio of sensory neurones to motor neurones?
4:1
28
Describe the structure of a motor neuron
long axons don't have a receptor cell body at the end with dendrites many short dendrons
29
Describe the structure of a sensory neuron
short axon receptor cell body at the side, no dendrites one long dendron
30
Which part of the brain is the largest?
Cerebrum
31
How are each hemispheres of the brain connected to each other?
By the corpus callosum
32
What is the white inside layer of a hemisphere called?
White matter
33
What is the outisde layer of grey matter on a hemisphere called?
Cerebral cortex
34
What is the function of the cortex?
Control voluntary actions such as running and walking | Responsible for sensations such as pain, learning and emotions
35
Which side of the body does the right side of the brain connect to?
Left side of the body
36
Which side of the body does the left side of the brain connect to?
Right side of the body
37
What are the cranial nerves?
12 pairs of nerves found on the underside of the brain
38
What is the cerebellum?
Second largest part of the brain Located below the cerebrum Looks like a ball of yarn
39
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Co-ordinate movement, posture and balance
40
What are the conseqences of damage to the cerebellum?
Jerky and uncooridinated movements
41
Where is the brain stem located?
Found on top of the spinal chord
42
What is the function of the brain stem?
Controls basic functions for life, such as breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure and circulation
43
Define metabolism
All chemical processes that take place within the body
44
What is Urea?
Waste product of kidneys
45
What is the function of the renal arteries?
Supply kidney with blood
46
What is the function of the bladder?
Store urine
47
What is the urethra?
Where urine exits the body
48
What is the ureter?
Tube that carries urine from kidneys to bladder
49
What is the function of the renal vein?
Carry filtered blood away from kidneys
50
Define egested
Removal of undigested waste (faeces)
51
Define excreted
Expelling waste
52
What is urea made up of?
Excess proteins or amino acids
53
What are some examples of excretory products?
``` Soluble vitamins Nitrogen waste Mineral salts Bile salts CO2 Water ```
54
What is the function of the kidneys?
Remove urea from the blood
55
What is urine made up of?
Urea diluted with water
56
What are the 4 sections of the kidney?
Cortex Medulla Pelvis Ureter
57
What is the Cortex and what is its function?
Outer layer of kidney full of nephrons | Filters the blood
58
What is the medulla and what is its function?
Middle layer of kidneys containing Loop of Henle | Carries filtered waste to the centre of the kidney
59
What is the Pelvis and what is its function?
Area where all collecting ducts come together and connect with ureter
60
What is the function of the ureter?
Transport urine to the bladder
61
How is urea filtered out of the blood?
Blood from the renal artery enters the Glomerulus which sits in the renal capsule Waste leaves capillary and enters the capsule
62
What is the function of the convoluted tubes?
Reabsorb useful substances including glucose, water and salts
63
What is the function of the Bowman’s Capsule?
Where filtration takes place. Filtrate contains useable and waste products
64
What is the function of the collecting duct?
Collect urine from the nephrons and take it to the pelvis
65
What is urine composed of?
Water Urea Sodium Chloride Potassium Chloride
66
What is deamination?
The break down of amino acids in the liver
67
What does deamination produce?
Urea
68
Why must water content in the body be kept regular?
To stop cells taking on too much water and dying
69
What can the colour of pee tell us?
``` Dark= dehydrated Light= hydrated ```
70
What is kidney disease?
Damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys that destroy the nephrons, meaning build up of waste occurs
71
What is the first sign of kidney disease?
Protein leaking into the urine due to damaged nephrons
72
What are the symptoms of kidney disease?
``` Fatigue Swollen ankles, feet, or hands Breathlessness Nausea Blood in pee ```
73
What are the treatments for kidney disease?
Lifestyle changes Medication to control blood pressure and cholesterol Dialysis Kidney transplant
74
What is dialysis?
Blood being removed from the body, filtered in a machine then put back in
75
Where is a transplant kidney placed?
In the groin, and the diseased kidneys are left in
76
What are the advantages of a kidney transplant?
No need for dialysis, normal lifestyle Hours of time back Save NHS money
77
What are the disadvantages of a kidney transplant?
Good tissue match needed Expensive Risk of organ rejection Some religions don’t allow transplants
78
What happens during a stroke?
Blood supply to part of the brain is cut off
79
What are two types of stroke?
Ischaemic | Haemorrhagic
80
What is an isachaemic stroke?
Blood supply cut off due to a blood clot
81
What is a haemorrhagic stroke?
A weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts
82
What is a Transient Ischaemic Attack?
Blood being temporarily interrupted
83
What are the symptoms of a stroke?
``` Face= dropped on 1 side, unable to smile, droopy eye Arms= unable to lift both, weakness or numbness Speech= slurred, garbled, unable to, problems understanding Time= dial 999 ```
84
How are strokes treated?
Medication to reduce blood pressure and cholesterol and dissolve blood clots Surgery to treat swelling Rehabilitation
85
What is Dysphasia?
Damage to part of the brain responsible for language
86
What is Dysarthria?
Weakness in muscles involved in speech as a result of brain damage
87
What is Dysphagia?
Problems with swallowing
88
How can strokes be prevented?
Reducing blood pressure (medication or lifestyle changes) Healthy diet, low in salt and fat Stop smoking Limit alcohol
89
What is Alteplase?
Medication to dissolve blood clots
90
What is a Thrombectomy?
Surgery to remove blood clots
91
What is aspirin?
Medication to prevent formation of blood clots
92
What are kidney stones?
Build up of waste in the kidneys that crystallise to form hard lumps
93
Where are kidney stones found?
Kidneys, ureter or bladder
94
What are the risk factors for kidney stones?
Not drinking enough water Taking certain types of medication Medical condition that raises the levels of substances in the urine
95
What will a GP recommend to ease symptoms of kidney stones?
Drinking lots of water Painkillers Anti-sickness medication Alpha-blockers
96
What will a GP advise to help kidney stones pass?
3 litres of water daily Adding fresh lemon to water Avoiding fizzy drinks Avoiding salt
97
What are the three main types of surgery to treat kidney stones?
``` Shockwave lithotripsy (SWL) Ureterscopy Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL) ```
98
What is an SWL?
Using an ultrasound to pinpoint the location of a kidney stone and then a shockwave sent to break them up
99
What is a Ureteroscopy?
A ureterscope being passed into the bladder where a surgeon can remove the stones with a laser to be passed in the urine
100
What is a PCNL?
A nephroscope being passed into the kidney via an incision in the back where the stones can be pulled out or lasered
101
What are the complications of kidney stone treatment?
``` Sepsis Blocked ureter Injury to the ureter UTI Bleeding Pain ```
102
How many bones make up the skull?
18 cranial | 14 facial
103
What is cerebrospinal fluid and what is its function?
Fluid found in and around the CNS organs and acts like a liquid cushion so there is buoyant protection in a situation of trauma
104
What is the cerebral cortex and what is its function?
2/3 of brain Most highly developed Responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language
105
What is the cerebellum and what is its function?
Found at top of spine | Controls balance and motor skills
106
What is the pituitary gland and what is its function?
Found at central base of brain | Secretes hormones that control hunger, thirst, body temperature and the reproductive system
107
What is the medulla and what is its function?
Found at top of brain stem | Regulates heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure and vomiting
108
What is the corpus callosum and what is its function?
Connects left and right side of brain, allowing communication between 2 hemispheres Coordinates eyesight
109
What is nephrotic syndrome?
Collection of symptoms that indicate kidney damage
110
What are the symptoms of nephrotic syndrome that indicate kidney damage?
Albuminuria Hyperlipidemia Oedema Hypoalbuminua
111
What is albuminuria?
Lots of protein in pee
112
What is hyperlipidemia?
High fat/cholesterol levels in the blood
113
What is oedema?
Swelling in legs feet or ankles
114
What is hypoalbuminia?
Low albumin levels in the blood
115
What is albumin?
Protein that draws in fluid to the bloodstream until it’s removed by the kidneys
116
How does oedema happen?
Albumin leaks into the urine, so blood loses capacity to absorb extra fluid
117
What are the two causes of nephrotic syndrome?
Membranous nephropathy | Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSG)
118
What is membranous nephropathy?
Immune molecules forming deposits on the glomeruli
119
What is FSG?
Scar tissue formation in parts of the glomeruli
120
What are the symptoms of nephrotic syndrome?
Weight gain Fatigue Foamy urine Loss of appetite
121
What are the complications of nephrotic syndrome?
``` Blood clots due to loss of protein Increased risk of infections Under active thyroid Anaemia Coronary artery disease High blood pressure Acute kidney injury ```
122
How is nephrotic syndrome diagnosed?
A urine test (dipstick)
123
What are the treatments for nephrotic syndrome?
``` ACE inhibitors ARBs Diuretics Pneumonia vaccine Limiting salt and fat Steroids ```
124
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Detects changes in blood chemistry and temperature | Regulates appetite and controls sexual development and reproduction
125
What happens when water levels in the body are too low?
Sensed by hypothalamus Pituitary gland releases Anti-Diuretic Hormone Cells in collecting duct become more permeable so water is drawn out by the loop of Henle which reabsorbs into the bloody by osmosis
126
What happens when water levels in the blood are too high?
Pituitary gland releases less ADH Less water gets reabsorbed into the blood Urine will be dilute and copious
127
What are afferent neurones?
(Sensory neurones) specialised to send impulses away from peripheral system towards CNS
128
What are efferent neurones?
Nerve cells carry signals to cells in peripheral system away from the CNS
129
What is multiple sclerosis (ms)?
Autoimmune condition that causes damage to the myelin sheath. Messages travelling along nerves become disrupted or slower
130
What causes MS?
Exact cause is unknown Likely to be combination of genetic and environmental factors Lack of vitamin D thought to be a factor
131
What are the three types of MS?
Relapsing remitting MS (RRMS) Secondary progressive MS (SPMS) Primary progressive MS (PPMS)
132
What is RRMS?
Most common type | Symptoms relapse then remit
133
What is SPMS?
Stage after RRMS | Build up of disability
134
What is PPMS?
Symptoms gradually get worse over time
135
What are the symptoms of MS?
``` Balance problems Muscle stiffness/weakness/spasms Speech tremors Vision problems Incontinence Memory issues ```
136
What are the treatments for MS?
Disease modifying drugs (reduce frequency and severity of relapses, not effective for PPMS) Diet and exercise Symptom management
137
What are the physical effects of MS?
Loss of mobility muscle weakness Impaired balance
138
What are the intellectual effects of MS?
Tiredness | Lack of motivation
139
What are the emotional effects of MS?
Overwhelmed Emotional outbursts Difficult to relate to loved ones
140
What are the social effects of MS?
Excluded from friends and family | Seclusion/isolation
141
What are the 4 key functions of the liver?
Deamination Detoxification Bile production Breakdown+recycling of RBC
142
What is deamination?
Liver cells removing excess amino acids from the blood, producing urea Remaining amino acid fed into cellular respiration within the liver cells
143
What is detoxification?
Liver cells removing poisons from the blood by breaking them down into harmless components If poisons are overused or cannot be broken down, it will result in liver failure
144
Apart from fat emulsion, what is the other function of bile?
Remove poisonous by-products from metabolism
145
How does the liver breakdown and recycle RBC?
Liver cells breakdown RBC due to short life span | Recycled haemoglobin produces Biliverdin and Bilirubin (makes faeces brown)
146
What is homeostasis?
Maintenance of ideal/optimal conditions within the body
147
What are the three types of monitoring process involved in maintaining homeostasis?
Positive feedback mechanisms Negative feedback mechanisms Effectors
148
What are positive feedback mechanisms?
Changing variable to an active state
149
What are negative feedback mechanisms?
Changing variable back to original state (ideal value)
150
What are effectors?
Chemical/electrical signallers that enable feedback mechanisms to function
151
What are the effects of low blood glucose?
Fainting Weakness Death
152
What are the effects of high blood glucose?
Blood vessel damage leading to heart and kidney disease | Excess excreted in urine
153
What are the specialised cells found within the pancreas?
Islets of Langerhen
154
What do the Islets of Langerhens contain?
The two types of cell that produce insulin and glucagon
155
What is the function of Islet cells in a blood glucose spike?
release insulin enabling cells to take up glucose from the blood
156
What is the function of Islet cells in a blood glucose drop?
Release glucagon, which breaks glycogen down into glucose so it can be released into the blood stream
157
What is cirrhosis?
Scarring of the liver caused by long term liver damage preventing correct liver function
158
What are the symptoms of cirrhosis?
``` Oedema in legs and tummy Jaundice Red patches on palms Spider-like blood vessel on skin above waist Loss of appetite Weight loss ```
159
How is cirrhosis diagnosed?
Blood test, scan or biopsy
160
What are the most common causes of cirrhosis?
Excessive alcohol consumption Having hepatitis Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
161
What are the treatments for cirrhosis?
``` Anti-viral meds to treat hepatitis Cut down and alcohol and high fat/salt/cholesterol foods Lose weight Liver transplant Diuretics Meds to lower blood pressure ```
162
What are the complications of cirrhosis?
``` Liver cancer Inability for blood to clot Encephalopathy Swollen veins Oedema ```
163
Explain the three types of diabetes
Type 1 is the bodies immune system attacking and destroying insulin producing cells Type 2 is where the body doesn’t produce enough insulin or doesn’t react to insulin Gestational is caused by elevated blood sugar levels during pregnancy
164
What is pre-diabetes?
Blood sugar levels that are above normal levels but aren’t high enough to be diabetes
165
What happens in the body in diabetes?
Glucose doesn’t get broken down or removed from the blood due to a lack of insulin or ineffective insulin
166
What are the symptoms of diabetes?
``` Excessive thirst Needing to pee Fatigue Weight loss Slow healing wounds Blurred vision ```
167
What are the treatments for type 1 diabetes?
``` Basal insulin (taking once or twice a day, given if the body needs it or not, keeps blood glucose stable) Bolus insulin (fast acting, taking before a meal containing carbs) ```
168
What are the treatments for type 2 diabetes?
Metformin (lowers blood glucose) Sulphonylureas (stimulate pancreas to produce insulin) Losing weight/eating healthier Insulin (only if severe)
169
Where is insulin produced?
The pancreas
170
What are the lifestyle changes recommended for type 2 diabetes?
``` 2.5 hours of moderate exercise a week Losing weight Whole grain carbs More fibre Reducing salt/fat/cholesterol Cutting down on alcohol ```
171
Describe ultrafiltration in the kidneys
Plasma forced out of capillary walls into Bowman’s capsule, where waste is removed, leaving only blood protein and cells behind
172
Describe reabsorption in the kidneys
Remaining water in plasma is reabsorbed in Proximal Tubule along with glucose, amino acid, vitamins and mineral salts
173
Describe osmoregulation in the kidneys
Remaining nephron sections are responsible for maintaining water levels

Health And Social Care (7 decks)

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