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Health And Social Care > Unit 4- The Regulatory System > Flashcards

Unit 4- The Regulatory System Flashcards

1
Q

Where are the kidneys?

A

Back of the abdominal cavity, either side of the spinal column, below ribline

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2
Q

What are the three main functions of the kidney?

A

Ultrafiltration
Reabsorption
Osmoregulation

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3
Q

How does ‘dirty’ blood enter the kidney?

A

Under high pressure via the aorta

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4
Q

How does ‘clean blood’ leave the kidneys?

A

Via the vena cava

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5
Q

Where is urine stored and where does it come from?

A

Passes down the ureters and is stored in the bladder

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6
Q

How does urine pass out of the body?

A

Via the urethra

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7
Q

What are the two sections the kidney is divided into?

A

Cortex

Medulla

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8
Q

How is dirty blood fed to the cortex?

A

Renal artery

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9
Q

Which part of the kidney does urine leave?

A

Medulla, via the renal pelvis

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10
Q

What is the Central Nervous System composed of?

A

Brain and spinal chord

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11
Q

What are Nerve Impulses?

A

Signals flowing from nerves to the spinal chord, to the brain and back again

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12
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous System composed of?

A

Branching web of nerves to all parts of the body

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13
Q

What are sensory nerves?

A

Send messages to the brain and connect through spinal chord inside the back bone

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14
Q

What are motor nerves?

A

Send messages from brain to all muscles and glands in the body

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15
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system composed of?

A

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

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16
Q

What does the somatic nervous system consist of?

A

Motor neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles

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17
Q

What does the Autonomic nervous system consist of?

A

Motor neurons than control muscle movement

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18
Q

What is the Autonomic nervous system composed of?

A

Sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic nervous system

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19
Q

What is the brain made up of?

A

100 billion neurons knotted together like pieces of thread

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20
Q

What is the function of neurons?

A

Carry and send electrical signals from peripheral nerves to the brain and back again

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21
Q

What does a neuron consist of?

A

Cell body
Dendrites
Axon

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22
Q

How many dendrite branches can a single neuron have?

A

50000

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23
Q

What is the function of the Axon?

A

Carries nerve impulses from the cell body to the dendrite of the next neuron

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24
Q

How do electrical signals travel from the axon terminal to the next dendrite?

A

Crosses the synaptic gap via neurotransmitters

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25
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

Lining of the axon that speeds up the passage of nerve impulses

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26
Q

What is the top speed of a nerve impulse?

A

395ft/s

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27
Q

What is the ratio of sensory neurones to motor neurones?

A

4:1

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28
Q

Describe the structure of a motor neuron

A

long axons
don’t have a receptor
cell body at the end with dendrites
many short dendrons

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29
Q

Describe the structure of a sensory neuron

A

short axon
receptor
cell body at the side, no dendrites
one long dendron

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30
Q

Which part of the brain is the largest?

A

Cerebrum

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31
Q

How are each hemispheres of the brain connected to each other?

A

By the corpus callosum

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32
Q

What is the white inside layer of a hemisphere called?

A

White matter

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33
Q

What is the outisde layer of grey matter on a hemisphere called?

A

Cerebral cortex

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34
Q

What is the function of the cortex?

A

Control voluntary actions such as running and walking

Responsible for sensations such as pain, learning and emotions

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35
Q

Which side of the body does the right side of the brain connect to?

A

Left side of the body

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36
Q

Which side of the body does the left side of the brain connect to?

A

Right side of the body

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37
Q

What are the cranial nerves?

A

12 pairs of nerves found on the underside of the brain

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38
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

Second largest part of the brain
Located below the cerebrum
Looks like a ball of yarn

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39
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Co-ordinate movement, posture and balance

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40
Q

What are the conseqences of damage to the cerebellum?

A

Jerky and uncooridinated movements

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41
Q

Where is the brain stem located?

A

Found on top of the spinal chord

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42
Q

What is the function of the brain stem?

A

Controls basic functions for life, such as breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure and circulation

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43
Q

Define metabolism

A

All chemical processes that take place within the body

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44
Q

What is Urea?

A

Waste product of kidneys

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45
Q

What is the function of the renal arteries?

A

Supply kidney with blood

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46
Q

What is the function of the bladder?

A

Store urine

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47
Q

What is the urethra?

A

Where urine exits the body

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48
Q

What is the ureter?

A

Tube that carries urine from kidneys to bladder

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49
Q

What is the function of the renal vein?

A

Carry filtered blood away from kidneys

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50
Q

Define egested

A

Removal of undigested waste (faeces)

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51
Q

Define excreted

A

Expelling waste

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52
Q

What is urea made up of?

A

Excess proteins or amino acids

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53
Q

What are some examples of excretory products?

A 
Soluble vitamins
Nitrogen waste
Mineral salts
Bile salts
CO2
Water
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54
Q

What is the function of the kidneys?

A

Remove urea from the blood

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55
Q

What is urine made up of?

A

Urea diluted with water

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56
Q

What are the 4 sections of the kidney?

A

Cortex
Medulla
Pelvis
Ureter

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57
Q

What is the Cortex and what is its function?

A

Outer layer of kidney full of nephrons

Filters the blood

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58
Q

What is the medulla and what is its function?

A

Middle layer of kidneys containing Loop of Henle

Carries filtered waste to the centre of the kidney

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59
Q

What is the Pelvis and what is its function?

A

Area where all collecting ducts come together and connect with ureter

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60
Q

What is the function of the ureter?

A

Transport urine to the bladder

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61
Q

How is urea filtered out of the blood?

A

Blood from the renal artery enters the Glomerulus which sits in the renal capsule
Waste leaves capillary and enters the capsule

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62
Q

What is the function of the convoluted tubes?

A

Reabsorb useful substances including glucose, water and salts

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63
Q

What is the function of the Bowman’s Capsule?

A

Where filtration takes place. Filtrate contains useable and waste products

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64
Q

What is the function of the collecting duct?

A

Collect urine from the nephrons and take it to the pelvis

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65
Q

What is urine composed of?

A

Water
Urea
Sodium Chloride
Potassium Chloride

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66
Q

What is deamination?

A

The break down of amino acids in the liver

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67
Q

What does deamination produce?

A

Urea

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68
Q

Why must water content in the body be kept regular?

A

To stop cells taking on too much water and dying

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69
Q

What can the colour of pee tell us?

A 
Dark= dehydrated
Light= hydrated
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70
Q

What is kidney disease?

A

Damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys that destroy the nephrons, meaning build up of waste occurs

71
Q

What is the first sign of kidney disease?

A

Protein leaking into the urine due to damaged nephrons

72
Q

What are the symptoms of kidney disease?

A 
Fatigue
Swollen ankles, feet, or hands
Breathlessness
Nausea
Blood in pee
73
Q

What are the treatments for kidney disease?

A

Lifestyle changes
Medication to control blood pressure and cholesterol
Dialysis
Kidney transplant

74
Q

What is dialysis?

A

Blood being removed from the body, filtered in a machine then put back in

75
Q

Where is a transplant kidney placed?

A

In the groin, and the diseased kidneys are left in

76
Q

What are the advantages of a kidney transplant?

A

No need for dialysis, normal lifestyle
Hours of time back
Save NHS money

77
Q

What are the disadvantages of a kidney transplant?

A

Good tissue match needed
Expensive
Risk of organ rejection
Some religions don’t allow transplants

78
Q

What happens during a stroke?

A

Blood supply to part of the brain is cut off

79
Q

What are two types of stroke?

A

Ischaemic

Haemorrhagic

80
Q

What is an isachaemic stroke?

A

Blood supply cut off due to a blood clot

81
Q

What is a haemorrhagic stroke?

A

A weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts

82
Q

What is a Transient Ischaemic Attack?

A

Blood being temporarily interrupted

83
Q

What are the symptoms of a stroke?

A 
Face= dropped on 1 side, unable to smile, droopy eye
Arms= unable to lift both, weakness or numbness
Speech= slurred, garbled, unable to, problems understanding
Time= dial 999
84
Q

How are strokes treated?

A

Medication to reduce blood pressure and cholesterol and dissolve blood clots
Surgery to treat swelling
Rehabilitation

85
Q

What is Dysphasia?

A

Damage to part of the brain responsible for language

86
Q

What is Dysarthria?

A

Weakness in muscles involved in speech as a result of brain damage

87
Q

What is Dysphagia?

A

Problems with swallowing

88
Q

How can strokes be prevented?

A

Reducing blood pressure (medication or lifestyle changes)
Healthy diet, low in salt and fat
Stop smoking
Limit alcohol

89
Q

What is Alteplase?

A

Medication to dissolve blood clots

90
Q

What is a Thrombectomy?

A

Surgery to remove blood clots

91
Q

What is aspirin?

A

Medication to prevent formation of blood clots

92
Q

What are kidney stones?

A

Build up of waste in the kidneys that crystallise to form hard lumps

93
Q

Where are kidney stones found?

A

Kidneys, ureter or bladder

94
Q

What are the risk factors for kidney stones?

A

Not drinking enough water
Taking certain types of medication
Medical condition that raises the levels of substances in the urine

95
Q

What will a GP recommend to ease symptoms of kidney stones?

A

Drinking lots of water
Painkillers
Anti-sickness medication
Alpha-blockers

96
Q

What will a GP advise to help kidney stones pass?

A

3 litres of water daily
Adding fresh lemon to water
Avoiding fizzy drinks
Avoiding salt

97
Q

What are the three main types of surgery to treat kidney stones?

A 
Shockwave lithotripsy (SWL)
Ureterscopy
Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
98
Q

What is an SWL?

A

Using an ultrasound to pinpoint the location of a kidney stone and then a shockwave sent to break them up

99
Q

What is a Ureteroscopy?

A

A ureterscope being passed into the bladder where a surgeon can remove the stones with a laser to be passed in the urine

100
Q

What is a PCNL?

A

A nephroscope being passed into the kidney via an incision in the back where the stones can be pulled out or lasered

101
Q

What are the complications of kidney stone treatment?

A 
Sepsis
Blocked ureter
Injury to the ureter
UTI
Bleeding 
Pain
102
Q

How many bones make up the skull?

A

18 cranial

14 facial

103
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid and what is its function?

A

Fluid found in and around the CNS organs and acts like a liquid cushion so there is buoyant protection in a situation of trauma

104
Q

What is the cerebral cortex and what is its function?

A

2/3 of brain
Most highly developed
Responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language

105
Q

What is the cerebellum and what is its function?

A

Found at top of spine

Controls balance and motor skills

106
Q

What is the pituitary gland and what is its function?

A

Found at central base of brain

Secretes hormones that control hunger, thirst, body temperature and the reproductive system

107
Q

What is the medulla and what is its function?

A

Found at top of brain stem

Regulates heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure and vomiting

108
Q

What is the corpus callosum and what is its function?

A

Connects left and right side of brain, allowing communication between 2 hemispheres
Coordinates eyesight

109
Q

What is nephrotic syndrome?

A

Collection of symptoms that indicate kidney damage

110
Q

What are the symptoms of nephrotic syndrome that indicate kidney damage?

A

Albuminuria
Hyperlipidemia
Oedema
Hypoalbuminua

111
Q

What is albuminuria?

A

Lots of protein in pee

112
Q

What is hyperlipidemia?

A

High fat/cholesterol levels in the blood

113
Q

What is oedema?

A

Swelling in legs feet or ankles

114
Q

What is hypoalbuminia?

A

Low albumin levels in the blood

115
Q

What is albumin?

A

Protein that draws in fluid to the bloodstream until it’s removed by the kidneys

116
Q

How does oedema happen?

A

Albumin leaks into the urine, so blood loses capacity to absorb extra fluid

117
Q

What are the two causes of nephrotic syndrome?

A

Membranous nephropathy

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSG)

118
Q

What is membranous nephropathy?

A

Immune molecules forming deposits on the glomeruli

119
Q

What is FSG?

A

Scar tissue formation in parts of the glomeruli

120
Q

What are the symptoms of nephrotic syndrome?

A

Weight gain
Fatigue
Foamy urine
Loss of appetite

121
Q

What are the complications of nephrotic syndrome?

A 
Blood clots due to loss of protein
Increased risk of infections
Under active thyroid
Anaemia
Coronary artery disease
High blood pressure
Acute kidney injury
122
Q

How is nephrotic syndrome diagnosed?

A

A urine test (dipstick)

123
Q

What are the treatments for nephrotic syndrome?

A 
ACE inhibitors
ARBs
Diuretics
Pneumonia vaccine
Limiting salt and fat
Steroids
124
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

Detects changes in blood chemistry and temperature

Regulates appetite and controls sexual development and reproduction

125
Q

What happens when water levels in the body are too low?

A

Sensed by hypothalamus
Pituitary gland releases Anti-Diuretic Hormone
Cells in collecting duct become more permeable so water is drawn out by the loop of Henle which reabsorbs into the bloody by osmosis

126
Q

What happens when water levels in the blood are too high?

A

Pituitary gland releases less ADH
Less water gets reabsorbed into the blood
Urine will be dilute and copious

127
Q

What are afferent neurones?

A

(Sensory neurones) specialised to send impulses away from peripheral system towards CNS

128
Q

What are efferent neurones?

A

Nerve cells carry signals to cells in peripheral system away from the CNS

129
Q

What is multiple sclerosis (ms)?

A

Autoimmune condition that causes damage to the myelin sheath.
Messages travelling along nerves become disrupted or slower

130
Q

What causes MS?

A

Exact cause is unknown
Likely to be combination of genetic and environmental factors
Lack of vitamin D thought to be a factor

131
Q

What are the three types of MS?

A

Relapsing remitting MS (RRMS)
Secondary progressive MS (SPMS)
Primary progressive MS (PPMS)

132
Q

What is RRMS?

A

Most common type

Symptoms relapse then remit

133
Q

What is SPMS?

A

Stage after RRMS

Build up of disability

134
Q

What is PPMS?

A

Symptoms gradually get worse over time

135
Q

What are the symptoms of MS?

A 
Balance problems 
Muscle stiffness/weakness/spasms
Speech tremors 
Vision problems 
Incontinence
Memory issues
136
Q

What are the treatments for MS?

A

Disease modifying drugs (reduce frequency and severity of relapses, not effective for PPMS)
Diet and exercise
Symptom management

137
Q

What are the physical effects of MS?

A

Loss of mobility
muscle weakness
Impaired balance

138
Q

What are the intellectual effects of MS?

A

Tiredness

Lack of motivation

139
Q

What are the emotional effects of MS?

A

Overwhelmed
Emotional outbursts
Difficult to relate to loved ones

140
Q

What are the social effects of MS?

A

Excluded from friends and family

Seclusion/isolation

141
Q

What are the 4 key functions of the liver?

A

Deamination
Detoxification
Bile production
Breakdown+recycling of RBC

142
Q

What is deamination?

A

Liver cells removing excess amino acids from the blood, producing urea
Remaining amino acid fed into cellular respiration within the liver cells

143
Q

What is detoxification?

A

Liver cells removing poisons from the blood by breaking them down into harmless components
If poisons are overused or cannot be broken down, it will result in liver failure

144
Q

Apart from fat emulsion, what is the other function of bile?

A

Remove poisonous by-products from metabolism

145
Q

How does the liver breakdown and recycle RBC?

A

Liver cells breakdown RBC due to short life span

Recycled haemoglobin produces Biliverdin and Bilirubin (makes faeces brown)

146
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintenance of ideal/optimal conditions within the body

147
Q

What are the three types of monitoring process involved in maintaining homeostasis?

A

Positive feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback mechanisms
Effectors

148
Q

What are positive feedback mechanisms?

A

Changing variable to an active state

149
Q

What are negative feedback mechanisms?

A

Changing variable back to original state (ideal value)

150
Q

What are effectors?

A

Chemical/electrical signallers that enable feedback mechanisms to function

151
Q

What are the effects of low blood glucose?

A

Fainting
Weakness
Death

152
Q

What are the effects of high blood glucose?

A

Blood vessel damage leading to heart and kidney disease

Excess excreted in urine

153
Q

What are the specialised cells found within the pancreas?

A

Islets of Langerhen

154
Q

What do the Islets of Langerhens contain?

A

The two types of cell that produce insulin and glucagon

155
Q

What is the function of Islet cells in a blood glucose spike?

A

release insulin enabling cells to take up glucose from the blood

156
Q

What is the function of Islet cells in a blood glucose drop?

A

Release glucagon, which breaks glycogen down into glucose so it can be released into the blood stream

157
Q

What is cirrhosis?

A

Scarring of the liver caused by long term liver damage preventing correct liver function

158
Q

What are the symptoms of cirrhosis?

A 
Oedema in legs and tummy
Jaundice
Red patches on palms
Spider-like blood vessel on skin above waist
Loss of appetite 
Weight loss
159
Q

How is cirrhosis diagnosed?

A

Blood test, scan or biopsy

160
Q

What are the most common causes of cirrhosis?

A

Excessive alcohol consumption
Having hepatitis
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

161
Q

What are the treatments for cirrhosis?

A 
Anti-viral meds to treat hepatitis
Cut down and alcohol and high fat/salt/cholesterol foods
Lose weight
Liver transplant 
Diuretics
Meds to lower blood pressure
162
Q

What are the complications of cirrhosis?

A 
Liver cancer
Inability for blood to clot 
Encephalopathy
Swollen veins
Oedema
163
Q

Explain the three types of diabetes

A

Type 1 is the bodies immune system attacking and destroying insulin producing cells
Type 2 is where the body doesn’t produce enough insulin or doesn’t react to insulin
Gestational is caused by elevated blood sugar levels during pregnancy

164
Q

What is pre-diabetes?

A

Blood sugar levels that are above normal levels but aren’t high enough to be diabetes

165
Q

What happens in the body in diabetes?

A

Glucose doesn’t get broken down or removed from the blood due to a lack of insulin or ineffective insulin

166
Q

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

A 
Excessive thirst
Needing to pee
Fatigue 
Weight loss
Slow healing wounds
Blurred vision
167
Q

What are the treatments for type 1 diabetes?

A 
Basal insulin (taking once or twice a day, given if the body needs it or not, keeps blood glucose stable)
Bolus insulin (fast acting, taking before a meal containing carbs)
168
Q

What are the treatments for type 2 diabetes?

A

Metformin (lowers blood glucose)
Sulphonylureas (stimulate pancreas to produce insulin)
Losing weight/eating healthier
Insulin (only if severe)

169
Q

Where is insulin produced?

A

The pancreas

170
Q

What are the lifestyle changes recommended for type 2 diabetes?

A 
2.5 hours of moderate exercise a week
Losing weight
Whole grain carbs
More fibre
Reducing salt/fat/cholesterol
Cutting down on alcohol
171
Q

Describe ultrafiltration in the kidneys

A

Plasma forced out of capillary walls into Bowman’s capsule, where waste is removed, leaving only blood protein and cells behind

172
Q

Describe reabsorption in the kidneys

A

Remaining water in plasma is reabsorbed in Proximal Tubule along with glucose, amino acid, vitamins and mineral salts

173
Q

Describe osmoregulation in the kidneys

A

Remaining nephron sections are responsible for maintaining water levels

Health And Social Care (7 decks)

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