Unit 4: Ch. 15 Flashcards
sampling in qualitative research
selection of sample members guided by desire for information rich sources (looking at what participants say)
representativeness is NOT a key issue
-representativeness is a quantitative concept, not necessarily a qualitative concept
random selection not considered productive
-simply doesn’t apply in qualitative studies b/c looking for different information
what are the 4 types of qualitative sampling?
- convenience sampling
- snowball sampling
- purposive sampling
- theoretical sampling
convenience sampling
pick the group of people that are the most convenient
- aka “volunteer samples”
- used in quantitative studies too
- most common
snowball sampling
one person tells another person who tells another person about the study (“word of mouth”)
-used in quantitative studies too
purposive sampling
people are selected for the study on purpose
theoretical sampling
designed to collect the type of data to best develop an emerging theory
-used in grounded theory
types of purposive sampling (6)
- maximum variation sampling
- extreme/deviant case sampling
- typical case sampling
- criterion sampling
- confirming sampling
- disconfirming sampling
purposive sampling: maximum variation sampling
sampling that is deliberately selecting cases w/ wide variation on dimensions of interest
-lots of different types of people in your sample
purposive sampling: extreme/deviant case sampling
provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and the most extreme informants
purposive sampling: typical case sampling
selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average
purposive sampling: criterion sampling
study of cases that meet a pre-determined criteria of importance
-looking for people w/ certain characteristics, attitudes…looking for certain info. People must meet the criterion
purposive sampling: confirming cases
fit the researchers conceptualizations and strengthen credibility (corroborates/confirms what the researcher thinks they know)
purposive sampling: disconfirming cases
do not confirm what the researcher thinks; serves to challenge the researcher’s interpretation; offer insights into how conceptualizations may be revised; looking outside the box
define theoretical sampling. where is it primarily used?
definition: selection of sample members who best facilitate and contribute to development of the emerging theory
used primarily in grounded theory research
sample size in qualitative research
no explicit formal criteria
-there are a range of sample sizes that can change due to various things, needs…
sample size determined by informational needs
- ex: focus groups need sample size of 5-10
- don’t have to increase sample size once you get the info you need (ex: focus group of 5 gives you the info you need –> don’t have to increase sample size to include 10 people)
decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation (“data redundancy,” “data repetition”)
-as researcher is doing interviews, you start hearing people say the same things
data quality can influence sample size
- ex: people in the study can clearly and concisely express their views –> fewer people are needed
- ex: people in the study cannot express themselves well –> need more people in the study
ethnography
researcher mingles with many members of a culture. Use a “big net” approach. May have anywhere from 25-50 informal conversations. A lot of data is collected in the process of living in the society
tend to need the largest sample sizes of all qualitative researchers
have multiple interviews with key informants
phenomenology
relies on small samples (often 10 or fewer); needs the fewest people of the qualitative researchers
participants must have directly experienced the phenomenon of interest
grounded theory
typically involves samples of somewhere between 20 and 40 people
researchers are selecting participants who can best contribute to the emerging theory (“people who are in the know”)
ethnography uses __ - __ informants.
NEED TO KNOW. ON EXAM
25-50 informants
phenomenology uses ___ or ___ people.
NEED TO KNOW. ON EXAM
10 or fewer people
grounded theory uses samples of between ___ and ___ people.
NEED TO KNOW. ON EXAM
20 and 40 people
what are the 6 types of self-report techniques?
- unstructured
- semi-structured
- focus groups
- diaries
- critical incidents interviews
- photo elicitation
self-report techniques: unstructured
conversational, totally flexible, tend to use broad questions.
really want participants to “take them wherever they need to go” (“Grand Tour Questions”)
self-report techniques: semi-structured
uses a topic guide. May have some questions but also may have prompts and may change questions based on how the person answers (may ask for more information)
self-report techniques: focus groups
NEED TO KNOW GROUP SIZE. ON EXAM
occurs in small groups of 5-10 people.
led by a moderator; usually has a recorder (may record audio or take notes about body language of group members)
-having a moderator and reporter is especially important in focus groups
self-report techniques: diaries
source that is used in historical research
want people to provide intimate detail of whatever is going on in their life
self-report techniques: critical incidents interviews
focus on specific incidents that had a discernible impact on some outcome
-ex: someone in NY on 9/11
self-report techniques: photo elicitation
interviews stimulated and guided by photographic images
ask participants to look at images and report their responses
focus groups occur in small groups of __ - __ people.
NEED TO KNOW. ON EXAM
5-10 people
qualitative researchers collect ____ data as participants are interviewed.
observational
Leininger’s 4 phase sequence of observation
Phase 1, primarily observation
Phase 2, primarily observation with some participation
Phase 3, primarily participation with some observation
Phase 4, reflective observation
Leininger’s phases of observation: phase 1, primarily observation
researcher is a novice
researchers observe and listen to people allowing everyone to get more comfortable in their reactions
-ex: first day of mental health clinical (lots of observations, very little interactions)
Leininger’s phases of observation: Phase 2, primarily observation with some participation
still a lot of observation going on but researchers start to participate much more in whatever the social group is; researcher getting more comfortable
Leininger’s phases of observation: Phase 3, primarily participation with some observation
researcher is doing a lot more participation with some observation; researchers strive to become active participants
-learn by experience of doing rather than by watching or listening
Leininger’s phases of observation: Phase 4, reflective observation
researcher has a lot of experience
researchers reflect on the total process of what has happened
-still observing and listening but gaining more understanding
who is Leininger?
a nurse who did ethnographic qualitative studies
came up with the 4 phase sequence of observation
observational data is gathered by documenting…? (6)
- the physical setting
- who is present or not present and are what their characteristics
- look at personal characteristics - what is happening; what participants are doing
- monitor how participants are behaving - the frequency, duration, and intensity of activities
- the process, organization, and unfolding of the activities
- behaviors may change as people get to know each other - outcomes of the activities or lack of outcomes and why
recording observations include? (2)
logs (field diaries): daily record of events
field notes:
- descriptive (observational notes)
- reflective notes:
- ->methodologic notes
- ->theoretical notes (or analytical notes)
- ->personal notes
field notes: Descriptive (observational) Notes
simply describing what is going on (w/o any interpretation); describing the setting, people…
field notes: reflective notes: Methodologic Notes
about how subsequent observations should be made
field notes: reflective notes: Theoretical Notes (or analytical notes)
attempt to attach meaning to the observation
field notes: reflective notes: Personal Notes
about the researcher’s own feelings about whatever is being studied; and what the participants are saying and doing
observational rating scales
ratings are on a descriptive continuum
- typically bipolar (from one extreme to the other)
- -> ex: scale of 1-10
ratings can occur:
- at specific intervals (looking at specific intervals in time; looking for a particular behavior)
- looking at the occurrence itself (made a tick-mark every time a particular behavior happens)
- global ratings (after the observational session)
- ->researcher is remembering what happened as opposed to watching it in real-time
whenever there are ratings, reliability has to be established
- 2 types of reliability for observation:
- -> 1. inter-rater reliability: 2 people rating observations at the same time (want ratings to be similar)
- -> 2. intra-rater reliability: 1 rater at 2 different times
inter-rater reliability
2 people rating observations at the same time (want ratings to be similar)
intra-rater reliability
1 rater at 2 different times
evaluation of unstructured observational methods
unstructured observational methods are an excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena/behaviors but there is a risk for bias
Biases:
- reactivity: a form of bias; when participants know whey are being observed so they change their behavior
- -> ex: Hawthorne effect
- objectivity: a form of bias; observational and interpersonal skills must be developed so researcher doesn’t get personally involved and lose objectivity
question examples (typically in methods section)
types of observation (typically in methods section)
reactivity bias
when participants know whey are being observed so they change their behavior
-ex: Hawthorne effect
objectivity bias
observational and interpersonal skills must be developed so researcher doesn’t get personally involved and lose objectivity
