Unit 304 general anatomy Flashcards
What does biology mean?
life processes of living organisms
What does human anatomy mean?
structures of the human body and their relationship to one an other
What does human physiology mean?
how the body normally functions
What cell does not contain a nucleus?
red blood cell
What does a cell contain?
nucleus and DNA
What are tissues?
specialised cells that are groups together and carry out similar functions to cells e.g. skin, bones
What are systems?
related functions to organs e.g. digestive system
What are organs?
group of tissues that preform different functions e.g. heart
What are muscle cells:
stimulated by electrical impulses to generate forces and produce motion.
What are nerve cells:
initiate and carry electrical impulses to distant areas of the body along their length to produce many actions.
What are epithelial cells:
cover the whole body as skin. They seperate areas of the body from each other and from the external environment.
What are connective tissue cells:
present in the body in different forms such as cartilage found in ligaments, bone, dentine
How do we fuel cells to enable the energy they need to work?
Food
What does homeostasis mean?
Maintaining the body temperature above or below that of the surroundings
Why do the body cells require oxygen?
to burn the food eaten to produce the energy they require to function.
How is oxygen brought into the body?
respiratory system
How is oxygen transported around the body to every cell that needs it?
circulatory system
Cardiovascular system function:
transport blood to the lungs for oxygenation
transport of oxygenated blood to body
transport of deoxygenated blood back to the lungs
Respiratory system function:
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the atmosphere.
Digestive system function:
digest, process and absorb nutrients from food
excrete waste products
nervous system function:
give consciousness
regulate and co-ordinate body activities
Musculoskeletal system function:
Bone, cartilage etc
support and protect internal organs
allow movement
Immune system function:
defend against infection
produce red and white blood cells
endocrine system function:
regulate and co-ordinate body functions
Integumentary system function:
skin
protect against injury and dehydration
maintains body temp
Where is the heart located?
Thorax (LEFT SIDE)
Connected by blood vessels
What 2 actions does the heart carry out?
pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body tissues
collects deoxygenated blood and transports it to the lungs
What colour is oxygenated blood?
bright cherry red
What colour is deoxygenated blood?
dark reddish purple
How many chambers does the heart have?
4
What are the 2 upper chambers of the heart called?
atria
What are the 2 lower chambers of the heart called?
ventricles
What blood does the right side of the heart transport?
deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs
What blood does the left side of the heart transport?
oxygenated blood form the lungs to the rest of the body
Deoxygenated blood is collected from the whole body through?
Veins
pulomary artery
Deoxygenated blood is transported to the right atrium via…
inferior and superior venae cavae
What is inbetween the 2 right heart chambers?
tricuspid valve
When blood has been oxygenated it is pumped through the one-way valve into the left ventricle, what is the valve called?
mitral valve
Oxygenated blood is carried through the body by?
Arteries
pulmonary vein
What is the largest artery in the body?
Aorta - carries oxygenated blood
What is a sinoatrial node?
heartbeat - muscle cells
What is the circulatory system?
enclosed loop of blood vessels with the heart at its centre.
Arteries decrease in size as they distance away from the heart, what do they become?
arterioles and then capillaries
Why are capillaries one cell thick?
can be used to burn food nutrients and create energy
Deoxgenated blood from the upper body is transported to the…
superior vena cava
Deoxgenated blood from the lower body is transported to the…
inferior vena cava
The difference in pressure within the arteries can be measured and recorded by taking what?
A patients blood pressure
What does systole mean?
when the heart muscles contract
what does diastole mean?
when the heart muscle relaxes
carotid pulse:
either side of the neck (carotid arteries lie) - neck vertebrae
Brachial pulse:
inner surface of the elbow (brachial arties lie)- elbow joints
radial pulse:
inner surface of the wrists (radial arteries lie) - radius bone lower arms
femoral pulse:
top of the inner thighs (femoral arteries lie)- femoral bone upper legs
How do veins differ to arteries?
veins have little elastic tissue compared
The circulatory system is filled with how much blood in an adult?
5 litres
What temperature should blood be kept at through the process of homeostasis?
37`C
Blood consists of several cell types floating in straw coloured fluid called…
Plasma
What are erythrocytes?
red blood cells
disc shaped cells, NO nucleus - cant divide or replace themselves
What are leucocytes?
white blood cells
defend the body against attack by micro-organisms and disease.
What are platelets?
thrombocytes - fragments of larger blood cells called megakaryocytes.
NO nucleus found in red bone marrow
As erythrocytes (red blood cells) cannot replicate, how are more produced?
red marrow of certain bones e.g pelvis
What do erythrocytes mainly do?
carry oxygen around the body
What gives red blood cells the bright red colour?
protein haemoglobin
Where are leucocytes made?
several areas of the immune system e.g. lymph nodes
What is the purpose of platelets?
they are concerned with the coagulation of blood at the site of injury to prevent excessive blood loss.
What is plasma?
part of the blood that carries the blood cells within it
90% water with plasma proteins floating within
What does plasma act as?
transport system for the body by carrying numerous cells and chemicals from one area to another when needed.
How may heart conditions affect dental treatment?
does not cope adequatley during stressful situations e.g. experiencing pain
How may blood disorders affect dental treatment?
may prevent blood clotting, so patients may experience an uncontrolled haemorrhage
How may medications affect dental treatment?
certain medications may react with some types of local anaesthetic such as those containing adrenaline e.g. thryoxine, antidepressants
medications that can affect dental treatment:
HRT, anticoagulants, diuretics (hypertension), antihypertensive drugs
What causes heart failure?
when the pumping efficiency of the heart itself is inadequate, resulting in its inability to pump enough blood with each beat for the body to function normally.
May involve one ventricle or both
When does heart failure occur?
problem with the heart or medical conditions
What is myocardial infarction?
Heart attack
reduction in the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart usually because of a clot causing a section of the muscle to die
What is the correct word for a clot?
thrombus
What is myocarditis?
inflammation of the heart muscle
viral infection
What is valvular disease?
can affect any of the 4 valves, filling or emptying of the heart is inadequate
What is angina?
chronic heart failure
condition of myocardial ischaemia (reduced blood flow)
What is angina caused by?
the narrowing or partial blockage of the coronary arties which supply the heart
What is renal failure?
chronic heart disease
kidney failure results in the patient being unable to remove sufficient waste fluids from the body during urination.
What is hypertension?
chronic heart disease
raised blood pressure at rest, the heart has to pump more strongly to move blood from the left ventricle into the aorta
constant strain on cardiac muscles
Why are some conditions categorised as chronic heart failure?
as the ineffectiveness of the pumping action of the heart deteriorates OVER TIME
What will patients suffering from chronic heart failure experience during dental treatment?
breathlessness, tiredness, chest pain when they are anxious
What is the condition oedema?
where fluid is being retained in the body tissues rather than being urinated.
When the right side of the heart is failing fluid collects where?
the ankles
peripheral oedema
When the left side of the heart is failing fluid collects where?
the lungs
pulmonary oedema
serious as it could cause death
When a clot (thrombus) is circulating what is it called?
embolus
What obstruction is angina?
partial obstruction of one or more coronary arteries
What obstruction is myocardial infarction?
full obstruction of one or more coronary arteries
What obstruction is a stroke?
full obstruction of an arterty supplying the brain
What obstruction is a pulmonary embolism?
full obstruction of one of the pulmonary arteries supplying the lungs, often by an embolus developing as a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in the leg veins
what does DVT stand for?
deep vein thrombosis
What is a cardiac arrest?
sudden failure of the heart to beat at all or to beat rapidly but ineffectively without pumping the blood.
Asystole means?
heart has stopped beating
fibrillation means?
heart is beating quickly without pumping the blood
What is rheumatic fever?
patient has suffered a previous illness that has caused damage to the heart valves.
What does bacteraemia mean?
bacteria in the blood
What is bacterial endocarditis?
inflammation of the inside of the heart
What is anaemia?
group of disorders that affect the oxygen carrying capacity of erythrocytes, so that insufficient oxygen is available for use by the body tissues.
What can cause anaemias?
heavy blood loss
lack of efficient erythrocyte production
What is a haemorrhage?
excessive bleeding
warfarin, aspirin - anticoagulants
What are the main components of the respiratory system?
two lungs- immerse air filled sacs
located in the thorax
How are the lungs connected?
alveoli and bronchioles
join to larger tubes and become the two main bronchi
connect to the trachae or windpipe
Where is the larynx?
throat
where is the nasopharynx?
back of the mouth and nose
Where does the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur?
alveoli
Air breathed in (inspired) from the atmosphere contains how much oxygen?
21%
Air breathed out (expired) contains how much oxygen?
16%
and 4% carbon dioxide
How much % difference in oxygen breathed in n out is there?
5%
used by the body tissues to help produce energy to function/
The process of ventilation occurs approximately how many times per minute in an adult at rest?
16
The whole respiratory tract is lined by cells that produce a sticky coating, what is this called?
mucus
mucus has microscopic hair like projections called?
cilia
Trachea is the..
wind pipe
oesophagus is the…
food pipe
what is the epiglottis?
flap that prevents food going into the wind pipe (trachea)
Explain the steps of the gaseous exchange
- breath in - air/oxygen (mouth/nose)
- trachea
- left or right lung
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli - gasesous exchange
- breathed out - co2 waste
Gaseous exchange takes place in the…
alveoli
What is bronchial asthma?
hypersensitivity response to inhaled particles that compromises the patients breathing by constricting their airways.
What is anaphylaxis?
severe allergic reaction, shuts down the airways and prevents adequate breathing.
What is bronchitis?
inflammation of the bronchi following a respiratory infection
What is emphysema?
abnormal widening and enlargement of the alveoli, preventing adequate gasesous transfer which occurs during respiration
If bronchitis and emphysema occurs together what is it called?
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
What is the digestive system more correctly referred to as?
gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
What do enzymes do?
chemically break down food into nutrients
What is another word for chewed?
masticated
What are acidic stomach contents neutralised by?
alkaline bile
Where is bile made and stored?
liver and stored in the gallbladder
What does the portal vein do?
carries the nutrient rich blood to the liver for storage
The liver acts as…
the chemical factory of the body
How may regurgitation conditions affect dental treatment?
acid reflux - enamel erosion
How may vomiting affect dental treatment?
erosion e.g. bulimia, pregnancy
How may liver disease affect dental treatment?
effects of any drugs given during dental treatment are increased (potentiated) or take longer to wear off.
How may malnourishment affect dental treatment?
prone to infections, poor wound healing abilities over time
prone in elderly patients
How may medications affect dental treatment?
long term steriod medication
patient may not be able to cope aswell in stressful events = collapse
What is dysphagia?
difficulty in swallowing
what is gastro-oesophageal reflux?
regurgitiation, stomach contents pass back (reflux) into the oesophagus.
burning sensation in the stomach, pain can be mistaken for angina or heart attack
what is a hiatus hernia?
the junction of the oesophagus and the stomach moves up through the opening of the diaphram and becomes trapped there.
restricts normal digestive movements
What is the hiatus?
oesophagus passes through the diaphragm to join the stomach in the abdominal cavity at a natural opening
What are gastric ulcers?
when acid damage is severe, the stomach wall is eroded and an ulder develops
caffeine, nicotine
What is bulimia?
psychological condition where the patient has a fear of becoming overweight and self induces vomiting after each meal.
= erosion
What is crohn`s disease?
chronic inflammatory disease that can affect any part of the digestive system.
What is ulcerative colitis?
a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the lining of the colon and rectum only.
What is type 1 diabetes?
severe form
younger patients - occurs rapidly
destruction of the specialised area of the pancreas where insulin is produced
What is type 2 diabetes?
develops gradually
older patients - obesity is a symptom
insufficient insulin production - genetic
Why is insulin given to diabetic patients?
so the patient does not become hyperglycaemic (high blood pressure) or hypoglycaemic(low blood pressure)
Patients with diabetes also have what difficulities that can affect dental treatment?
develop infections easily
poor wound healing - periodontal disease
What affect can liver disease have on a patient?
the ability to store and use food nutrients efficiently, and unable to detoxify many drugs including LA.
What are the 3 main liver diseases?
- cirrhosis - damage of the liver cells (cystic fibrosis)
- hepatitis - inflammation of the liver
-cancer of the liver - both of the above conditions can enable liver cancer.
The brain and the spinal cord form the..
central nervous system
The peripheral nerves, automatic nerves and enteric nerves form the…
peripheral nervous system
What are the sensory organs?
eyes, ears, tongue, nose
Peripheral nerves - Sensory nerves
carry information from the body to the brain
sensations: pain, temperature, touch, specialised sensations
Peripheral nerves - Motor nerves
carry information from the brain to the body
muscles of mastication and facial expression
control the flow of saliva - autonomic nerves
Motor nerves: somatic nerves
carry impulses to the musculoskeletal system to allow voluntary movement
Motor nerves: autonomic nerves
carry impulses to blood vessels and interal organs
Motor nerves: enteric nerves
carry impulses to the GIT(digestive system), to regulate blood flow during digestion
What are simple electrical impluses?
information and actions are generatred as a consequence and are transmitted throughout the nervous system
The wave like surge of energy is called
nerve impluse
What are the brain and spinal cord covered by, they are three membranous layers called
meninges, the inner two layers being seperated by the cerebrospinal fluid.
What does the cerebrospinal fluid act as
shock absorber capacity to protect the brain and spinal cord
The brain consists of two cerebrospinal hemispheres that take up the vast majority of the skull = 4 lobes
Frontal lobe is forming
the forehead region
Parietal lobes are forming
the top sides of the head
Temporal lobes are forming
the lower sides of the head in the ear region
Occipital lobes are forming
the back of the head
At the back of the brain beneath the occipital lobe lies the cerebellum, what is this concerned with?
control of balance and posture and movement
Beneath the middle region of the brain the cerebal hemispheres lie over a structure called the brainstem or medulla oblongata, which is in control of?
control centre for all the basic brain functions necessary for life
nerves supplying the neck and head region leave the brain directly from its undersurface through various natural bony openings called…
foramina
emerge as the 12 pairs of cranial nerves
All cranial nerves except for one are composed of both sensory and motor components which one is this?
Hypoglossal nerve 12th
5th cranial nerve TRIGEMINAL function is:
sensory - pain, temperature, touch of teeth, and oral soft tissues
Motor - muscles of mastication
7th cranial nerve FACIAL function is:
sensory - taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue
Motor - muscles of facial expression
Autonomic - salivary glands
9th cranial nerve GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL function is:
sensory - taste from posterior tongue
motor - control of swallowing
autonomic - salivary glands
12th cranial nerve HYPOGLOSSAL function is:
motor - tongue muscles
How may a previous stroke impact dental treatment?
nervous system
communication, swallowing and oral hygiene maintenance may be difficult for the patient.
How may epilepsy impact dental treatment?
nervous system
patient may have seizures at any time, dental team should be able to manage this successfully.
How may medications impact dental treatment?
nervous system
affect on soft tissues
A stroke occurs when?
there is a sudden alteration in cerebral blood flow
Stroke: cerebral thrombosis
blood clot forms within a brain artery, which reduces or cuts off the oxygenated blood supply to that region
Stroke: cerebral embolism
blockage of a brain artery by a loose blood clot that has formed elsewhere in the body, detaches from the blood vessel wall and circulates to the brain.
Stroke: cerebral haemorrhage
cerebral blood vessel ruptures and bleeding occurs within the skull, increasing pressure on the brain.
Transient ischaemic attack: TIA
small partial blockage of a cerebral artery - mild visual disturbance or brief memory lapse
indicates that part of the brain has a reduced blood flow
Epilepsy means
the electrical activity of the nerve cells in the brain become temporarily abnormal and disorganised - seizure
Epilepsy: Grand mal seizure
patient falls down unconscious, body stiffens and patient begins to twitch and jerk uncontrollably - tonic clonic seizures
Epilepsy: Petit mal seizure
patient has a momentary loss of consciousness with no associated abnormal movements e.g. daydreaming - absence seizures
Mild seizures are called
absence seizures
Severe seizures are called
tonic clonic seizures
If a grand mal seizure lasts over 5 minutes what state is the patient said to be in?
status epilepticus
What medical condition is said to cause gingival hyperplasia due to the medication phenytoin sodium?
epilepsy
gingival hyperplasia - gum overgrowth
What is bell`s palsy?
temporary paralysis of the VII cranial nerve facial nerve (7th)
any inflammation caused by the parotid salivary glands can cause bells palsy
Anterior is the
front
Posterior is the
back
superior is the
upper
inferior is the
lower
The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the ophthalmic division?
sensory supply of the soft tissues around the eye and upper face
The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the maxillary division?
sensory supply of the upper teeth, the maxilla and the middle area of the face
The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the mandibular division?
sensory supply of the lower teeth, mandible and lower area of the face
motor supply to the muscles of mastication
Jaw opening occurs due to the actions of a separate group of muscles called the…
suprahyoids
lie beneath the mandible and are attached to the hyoid bone in the throat.
The maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve splits into a further 5 branches which are all sensory, what are the 5 branches?
- anterior superior dental nerve
- middle superior dental nerve
-posterior superior dental nerve
-greater palatine nerve
-nasopalatine nerve
What is the anterior superior dental nerve?
sensation from the upper incisor and canine teeth and their labial gingivae, soft tissues of the upper lip and around the nostrils
What is the middle superior dental nerve?
sensation from the upper pre-molar and the anterior half of the upper first molar teeth and their buccal gingivae
What is the posterior superior dental nerve?
sensation from the posterior half of the upper first molar and the 2nd n 3rd and their buccal gingivae
What is the greater palatine nerve?
sensation from the palatal gingivae of the upper molar, premolar and posterior half of the canine teeth
What is the nasopalatine nerve?
previously called the long sphenopalatine nerve
sensation from the palatal gingivae of the upper incisor and anterior half of the canine teeth
The middle and anterior superior dental nerve emerge through which foramen?
infraorbital foramen
The posterior superior dental nerve emerges through which foramen?
greater palatine foramen - opposite the 3rd molar tooth
The nasopalatine nerve emerges through which foramen?
incisive foramen - behind the central incisors
The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve emerges from the skull through the foramen and splits into 4 branches which carry both sensory and motor components, what are the 4 branches?
- Inferior dental nerve
-lingual dental nerve
-long buccal nerve
-motor branch
What is the inferior dental nerve?
sensation from all the lower teeth, and from the buccal or labial gingivae of all EXCEPT molars. Soft tissues of the lower lip and chin
What is the lingual nerve?
sensation from all lingual gingivae of the lower teeth, the floor of the mouth and touch sensation from 2/3 anterior tongue
What is the long buccal nerve?
sensation from the buccal gingivae of the lower molar teeth
What is the motor branch?
supplies stimulation to the muscles of mastication, effect jaw closing and chewing movements.
The inferior dental nerve enters the mandible through which foramen?
mandibular foramen
What is the lingula?
small bony projection located on the front edge of the ramus
At the end of the branch the inferior dental nerve emerges on the outer surface of the mandible through which foramen?
mental foramen
situated below the apices of the premolars.
From the point where the inferior dental nerve passes through the mental foramen the nerve is then called?
mental nerve
supplies buccal gum of the incisors canines and premolars, plus the lower lip and chin
