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AP Biology > Unit 3 - psych > Flashcards

Unit 3 - psych Flashcards

1
Q

Longitudinal study

A

studies a person or group of people over an extended period of time.

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2
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

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3
Q

Zygote

A

the fertilized egg. The zygote stage lasts 2 weeks in which there is a period of rapid cell division. About day 10, the zygote attaches to the mother’s uterine wall.

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4
Q

Embryo

A

the developing human organism from 2 – 8 weeks (2nd month). At this time organs begin to form and function (the heart beats, liver produces red cells, etc.), the umbilical cord forms, and arms and legs are beginning to form.

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5
Q

Fetus

A

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. At this time hands and feet are developing, at around the 6th month, organs such as the stomach have developed enough to allow a premature born fetus a chance of survival. The fetus is also responsive to the mother’s voice.

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6
Q

Teratogens

A

toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus if ingested or contracted by the mother. Examples are alcohol, drugs, nicotine, HIV, AIDS, etc.

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7
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. Some characteristics include: disproportioned head, learning disabilities, emotional problems, etc.

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8
Q

Habituation

A

a decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation. Ex. a baby no longer being excited by a toy.

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9
Q

Schema

A

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

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10
Q

Assimilation

A

the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

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11
Q

Accommodation

A

the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

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12
Q

Object permanence

A

the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Develops in the sensorimotor stage.

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13
Q

Conservation

A

the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though their form or appearance is rearranged. Ex. understanding that your sandwich is the same size if it is cut into halves or quarters.

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14
Q

Attachment

A

emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers & showing distress on separation

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15
Q

Body contact

A

Harry & Margaret Harlow separated baby monkeys & raised them in individual cages - found that the babies became very stressed when they were separated from the blankets they were given

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16
Q

The Stranger Situation

A

procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment developed Mary Ainsworth

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17
Q

Secure attachment

A

infants who comfortably explore environments when caregiver is present, temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

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18
Q

Insecure attachment

A

clinging, anxious attachment, an avoidant attachment that resists closeness, disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior

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19
Q

Authoritarian parenting style

A

impose rules & expect obedience (“My way or the highway”)

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20
Q

Permissive

A

make few demands; set few limits; use little punishment

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21
Q

Neglectful

A

neither demanding or responsive; careless & inattentive; do not seek a close relationship

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22
Q

Authoritative

A

demanding & responsive; exert control by setting rules, but encourage open discussion (regarded as the healthiest parenting style)

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23
Q

Self-concept

A

all our thoughts & feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “Who am I?”

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24
Q

Social identity

A

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group membership

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25
Q

Emerging adulthood

A

period from about age 18 to the mid-20s, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

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26
Q

Well-being in Adulthood

A

Self-esteem & psychological well-being remain stable, positive emotions increase after midlife, older adults have smaller social networks, with fewer friendships & greater loneliness

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27
Q

Greif

A

People do not grieve in predictable stages, can be harder to process when a death is sudden and unexpected

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28
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

proposed that we are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which allows us to learn any human language

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29
Q

Intersex

A

possessing male & female biological sexual characteristics at birth

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30
Q

Puberty

A

2 year period of rapid sexual maturation

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31
Q

Sexual Aggression

A

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

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32
Q

Gender identity

A

a person’s inherent sense of being a man, woman, neither, or some combination

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33
Q

Sexuality

A

our thoughts, feelings, & actions related to our physical attraction to others

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34
Q

Language

A

our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, & the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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35
Q

Phonemes

A

smallest distinctive unit of sound in a language

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36
Q

Morphemes

A

smallest unit in a language that carries meaning

37
Q

Babbling stage

A

stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds (not mimicking language)

38
Q

One-word stage

A

stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

39
Q

Two-word stage

A

stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences

40
Q

Critical periods

A

children who have a late start on learning language follow the normal sequence but at a faster pace
- If not exposed to language before age 7, it is unlikely that they will be able to master any language

41
Q

Linguistic determinism

A

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

42
Q

Linguistic relativism

A

idea that language influences the way we think

43
Q

Associative learning

A

learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response & its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

44
Q

Stimulus

A

any event or situation that evokes a response

45
Q

Cognitive maps

A

mental representation of the layout of one’s environment; for example, after exploring a maze, rats act if they have learned a cognitive map of it

46
Q

Classical conditioning

A

an organism associates different stimulus that it does not control and responds automatically; one learns links to two or more stimulus and anticipates events

47
Q

Scenario
Sabin feeds Luch wet food everyday and everyday he meows happily for it. Soon, Luch associates the sound of a can opening with food. Now whenever he hears a can open, he runs to the kitchen and meows happily.

A

UCS - food
UR - happy meows
NS - the sound of can opening
CS - the sound of can opening
CR - happy meows

48
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - 2

A

a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally & automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UCR) - you don’t need to be taught how to respond

49
Q

Neutral stimulus (NS) - 1

A

stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
In Pavlov’s experiment, this was a tone/bell)

50
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR) - 3

A

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In Pavlov’s experiment, this was salivation when given food - response that does not need to be learned

51
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - 4

A

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an US, triggers a conditioned response
In Pavlov’s experiment, this was a tone/bell

52
Q

Conditioned response (CR) - 5

A

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
In Pavlov’s experiment, this was salivation at the sound of the be

53
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Russian psychologist who was the first to put classical conditioning to practice, famous dog, bell, salivation conditioning experiment

54
Q

John B. Watson

A

Built upon the research of Pavlov with his own classical conditioning project in the 1920’s, performed the controversial “Little Albert” experiment which conditioned an infant to fear fuzzy white things

55
Q

Acquisition

A

A stage of the conditioning processes occurs when a certain response has been established (NS better before UCS, no more than two seconds between)
- occurs during the stage when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented just before or at the same times as the unconditioned stimulus
- the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are paired together in order to attempt learning of a conditioned response

56
Q

Discrimination

A

The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus - the dog will learn to not salivate to certain bell sounds if he received no food to them

57
Q

Generalization

A

Tendency to evoke similar responses after a response has been conditioned (Little Albert experiment) - salivating to different bell sounds

58
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

A sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished response
- a learned behavior that seemed to have disappeared suddenly returns again, often seen in the context of classical conditioning

59
Q

Extinction

A

When the CS no longer elicits the CR
- when the conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus diminishes overtime because the pairing of the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus is no longer happening

60
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

An organism associates its behavior (their environment) with their consequences
- actions are more likely to be repeated if followed by positive reinforcement (reward) and less likely to be repeated if followed by punishment

61
Q

Big Question

A

Do you want the behavior to continue?
Yes- Use reinforcement
No - Use punishment

62
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Adding something to reinforce a certain behavior

63
Q

Positive Punishment

A

Adding something to stop a certain behavior

64
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Taking away something to reinforce a certain behavior

65
Q

Negative Punishment

A

Taking away something to stop a certain behavior

66
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

one of the first and influential psychologist to test operant conditioning
Created the “Skinner Box” aka the Operant Chamber
Controversy
Psychologists argue that Skinner ignored human side in conditioning
Dehumanization by ignoring free-will

67
Q

Fixed Ratio

A

depends on behavior itself, a certain number of behavior are necessary before reinforcement occurs
- Reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses
ex. getting a bonus after 10 sales

68
Q

Variable Ratio

A

reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses
- Reinforcement is given after a random number of responses
ex. slot machines

69
Q

Fixed intervals

A

involves time, time must pass before reinforcement will occur
- Reinforcement is given after a set time interval has passed
ex. checking the mail at a specific time every day

70
Q

Variable intervals

A

reinforced the first response after varying time intervals
-Reinforcement is given after a random time interval
ex. checking for a text message from a friend

71
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
Quickest acquisition, easiest to extinguish

72
Q

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

A

reinforcing a response only part of the time
Slower acquisition, harder to extinguish

73
Q

Immediate Reinforcer

A

A reinforcer that occurs closely to a behavior in time
Rat presses bar, rat gets food

74
Q

Delayed Reinforcer

A

A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior
Weekly paycheck

75
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Psychologist who studied observational learning, coined the term “Social Learning Theory,” conducted the Bobo Doll experiment

76
Q

Observational learning

A

learning that occurs when behavior is observed then modeled
Majority of learning

77
Q

Modeling

A

when behavior is observed then copied, limitations include desire to model, ability, attention, and retention

78
Q

Pro-social behavior

A

Behavior that is viewed as good, constructive, or helpful

79
Q

Anti-social behavior

A

Behavior that is viewed as bad, destructive, or unhelpfu

80
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
- specific type of brain cell that fires both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action

81
Q

Infancy

A

trust vs mistrust
- If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

82
Q

toddlerhood

A

Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
- Toddlers learn to exercise their will & do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

83
Q

Preschool (3-6)

A

Initiative vs. guilt
- Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks & carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

84
Q

Elementary school (6-puberty

A

Industry (competence) vs. inferiority
- Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

85
Q

Adolescence (teens-20s)

A

Identity vs. role confusion
- Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles & then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

86
Q

Young adulthood (20s-40s)

A

Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adults learn to form close relationships & gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

87
Q

Middle adulthood (40s-60s)

A

Generativity vs. stagnation
- Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family or work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

88
Q

Late adulthood (late 60s-older)

A

Integrity vs. despair
- Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

AP Biology (6 decks)

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