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AP Biology > Unit 3 - psych > Flashcards

Unit 3 - psych Flashcards

1
Q

Longitudinal study

A

studies a person or group of people over an extended period of time.

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2
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

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3
Q

Zygote

A

the fertilized egg. The zygote stage lasts 2 weeks in which there is a period of rapid cell division. About day 10, the zygote attaches to the mother’s uterine wall.

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4
Q

Embryo

A

the developing human organism from 2 – 8 weeks (2nd month). At this time organs begin to form and function (the heart beats, liver produces red cells, etc.), the umbilical cord forms, and arms and legs are beginning to form.

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5
Q

Fetus

A

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. At this time hands and feet are developing, at around the 6th month, organs such as the stomach have developed enough to allow a premature born fetus a chance of survival. The fetus is also responsive to the mother’s voice.

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6
Q

Teratogens

A

toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus if ingested or contracted by the mother. Examples are alcohol, drugs, nicotine, HIV, AIDS, etc.

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7
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. Some characteristics include: disproportioned head, learning disabilities, emotional problems, etc.

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8
Q

Habituation

A

a decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation. Ex. a baby no longer being excited by a toy.

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9
Q

Schema

A

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

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10
Q

Assimilation

A

the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

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11
Q

Accommodation

A

the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

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12
Q

Object permanence

A

the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Develops in the sensorimotor stage.

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13
Q

Conservation

A

the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though their form or appearance is rearranged. Ex. understanding that your sandwich is the same size if it is cut into halves or quarters.

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14
Q

Attachment

A

emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers & showing distress on separation

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15
Q

Body contact

A

Harry & Margaret Harlow separated baby monkeys & raised them in individual cages - found that the babies became very stressed when they were separated from the blankets they were given

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16
Q

The Stranger Situation

A

procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment developed Mary Ainsworth

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17
Q

Secure attachment

A

infants who comfortably explore environments when caregiver is present, temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

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18
Q

Insecure attachment

A

clinging, anxious attachment, an avoidant attachment that resists closeness, disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior

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19
Q

Authoritarian parenting style

A

impose rules & expect obedience (“My way or the highway”)

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20
Q

Permissive

A

make few demands; set few limits; use little punishment

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21
Q

Neglectful

A

neither demanding or responsive; careless & inattentive; do not seek a close relationship

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22
Q

Authoritative

A

demanding & responsive; exert control by setting rules, but encourage open discussion (regarded as the healthiest parenting style)

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23
Q

Self-concept

A

all our thoughts & feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “Who am I?”

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24
Q

Social identity

A

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group membership

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25
Emerging adulthood
period from about age 18 to the mid-20s, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
26
Well-being in Adulthood
Self-esteem & psychological well-being remain stable, positive emotions increase after midlife, older adults have smaller social networks, with fewer friendships & greater loneliness
27
Greif
People do not grieve in predictable stages, can be harder to process when a death is sudden and unexpected
28
Noam Chomsky
proposed that we are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which allows us to learn any human language
29
Intersex
possessing male & female biological sexual characteristics at birth
30
Puberty
2 year period of rapid sexual maturation
31
Sexual Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
32
Gender identity
a person’s inherent sense of being a man, woman, neither, or some combination
33
Sexuality
our thoughts, feelings, & actions related to our physical attraction to others
34
Language
our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, & the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
35
Phonemes
smallest distinctive unit of sound in a language
36
Morphemes
smallest unit in a language that carries meaning
37
Babbling stage
stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds (not mimicking language)
38
One-word stage
stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
39
Two-word stage
stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences
40
Critical periods
children who have a late start on learning language follow the normal sequence but at a faster pace - If not exposed to language before age 7, it is unlikely that they will be able to master any language
41
Linguistic determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
42
Linguistic relativism
idea that language influences the way we think
43
Associative learning
learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response & its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
44
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
45
Cognitive maps
mental representation of the layout of one’s environment; for example, after exploring a maze, rats act if they have learned a cognitive map of it
46
Classical conditioning
an organism associates different stimulus that it does not control and responds automatically; one learns links to two or more stimulus and anticipates events
47
Scenario Sabin feeds Luch wet food everyday and everyday he meows happily for it. Soon, Luch associates the sound of a can opening with food. Now whenever he hears a can open, he runs to the kitchen and meows happily.
UCS - food UR - happy meows NS - the sound of can opening CS - the sound of can opening CR - happy meows
48
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - 2
a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally & automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UCR) - you don't need to be taught how to respond
49
Neutral stimulus (NS) - 1
stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning In Pavlov’s experiment, this was a tone/bell)
50
Unconditioned response (UCR) - 3
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) In Pavlov’s experiment, this was salivation when given food - response that does not need to be learned
51
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - 4
an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an US, triggers a conditioned response In Pavlov’s experiment, this was a tone/bell
52
Conditioned response (CR) - 5
a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) In Pavlov’s experiment, this was salivation at the sound of the be
53
Ivan Pavlov
Russian psychologist who was the first to put classical conditioning to practice, famous dog, bell, salivation conditioning experiment
54
John B. Watson
Built upon the research of Pavlov with his own classical conditioning project in the 1920’s, performed the controversial “Little Albert” experiment which conditioned an infant to fear fuzzy white things
55
Acquisition
A stage of the conditioning processes occurs when a certain response has been established (NS better before UCS, no more than two seconds between) - occurs during the stage when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented just before or at the same times as the unconditioned stimulus - the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are paired together in order to attempt learning of a conditioned response
56
Discrimination
The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus - the dog will learn to not salivate to certain bell sounds if he received no food to them
57
Generalization
Tendency to evoke similar responses after a response has been conditioned (Little Albert experiment) - salivating to different bell sounds
58
Spontaneous recovery
A sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished response - a learned behavior that seemed to have disappeared suddenly returns again, often seen in the context of classical conditioning
59
Extinction
When the CS no longer elicits the CR - when the conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus diminishes overtime because the pairing of the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus is no longer happening
60
Operant Conditioning
An organism associates its behavior (their environment) with their consequences - actions are more likely to be repeated if followed by positive reinforcement (reward) and less likely to be repeated if followed by punishment
61
Big Question
Do you want the behavior to continue? Yes- Use reinforcement No - Use punishment
62
Positive Reinforcement
Adding something to reinforce a certain behavior
63
Positive Punishment
Adding something to stop a certain behavior
64
Negative Reinforcement
Taking away something to reinforce a certain behavior
65
Negative Punishment
Taking away something to stop a certain behavior
66
B.F. Skinner
one of the first and influential psychologist to test operant conditioning Created the “Skinner Box” aka the Operant Chamber Controversy Psychologists argue that Skinner ignored human side in conditioning Dehumanization by ignoring free-will
67
Fixed Ratio
depends on behavior itself, a certain number of behavior are necessary before reinforcement occurs - Reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses ex. getting a bonus after 10 sales
68
Variable Ratio
reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses - Reinforcement is given after a random number of responses ex. slot machines
69
Fixed intervals
involves time, time must pass before reinforcement will occur - Reinforcement is given after a set time interval has passed ex. checking the mail at a specific time every day
70
Variable intervals
reinforced the first response after varying time intervals -Reinforcement is given after a random time interval ex. checking for a text message from a friend
71
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs Quickest acquisition, easiest to extinguish
72
Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time Slower acquisition, harder to extinguish
73
Immediate Reinforcer
A reinforcer that occurs closely to a behavior in time Rat presses bar, rat gets food
74
Delayed Reinforcer
A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior Weekly paycheck
75
Albert Bandura
Psychologist who studied observational learning, coined the term “Social Learning Theory,” conducted the Bobo Doll experiment
76
Observational learning
learning that occurs when behavior is observed then modeled Majority of learning
77
Modeling
when behavior is observed then copied, limitations include desire to model, ability, attention, and retention
78
Pro-social behavior
Behavior that is viewed as good, constructive, or helpful
79
Anti-social behavior
Behavior that is viewed as bad, destructive, or unhelpfu
80
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy - specific type of brain cell that fires both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action
81
Infancy
trust vs mistrust - If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
82
toddlerhood
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt - Toddlers learn to exercise their will & do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
83
Preschool (3-6)
Initiative vs. guilt - Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks & carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
84
Elementary school (6-puberty
Industry (competence) vs. inferiority - Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
85
Adolescence (teens-20s)
Identity vs. role confusion - Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles & then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
86
Young adulthood (20s-40s)
Intimacy vs. isolation Young adults learn to form close relationships & gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
87
Middle adulthood (40s-60s)
Generativity vs. stagnation - Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family or work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
88
Late adulthood (late 60s-older)
Integrity vs. despair - Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

AP Biology (6 decks)

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