Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic
A
historical perspective used by Freud to explain to the unconscious on behavior.
2
Q
Behaviorism
A
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
3
Q
Humanistic psychology
A
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.
4
Q
Cognitive
A
the perspective that focuses on brain functioning including perception, thinking, memory, and language.
5
Q
Biological (Neuroscience)
A
perspective, which focuses on how brain chemistry, genes, and hormones impact behavior.
6
Q
Social-cultural
A
perspective which focuses on the impacts of our cultural, family, friends, and society.
7
Q
Evolutionary
A
perspective which focuses on the impacts of our ancestors on behavior.
8
Q
Confidentiality
A
personal information about subjects is to never be shared.
9
Q
Informed Consent
A
subjects must give written consent to participate in an experiment.
10
Q
Case study
A
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
11
Q
Survey
A
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
12
Q
Population
A
: all the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.
Random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
13
Q
Random sample
A
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
14
Q
Representative sample
A
A subset of the population carefully chosen to represent the proportionate diversity of the population as a whole
15
Q
Naturalistic observation
A
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. *Naturalistic observation doesn’t explain, it only describes.
16
Q
Experiment
A
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); makes it possible to study cause and effect relationships.
17
Q
Operational definition
A
specifically names the operations (steps or procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment. This allows the experiment to be replicated.
18
Q
Random assignment
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assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
19
Q
Double-blind procedure
A
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo. This is commonly used in drug studies.
20
Q
Placebo
A
a pseudo treatment, in drug studies, a pill with no drug in it.
21
Q
Placebo effec
A
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by administering a placebo, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
22
Q
Experimental group
A
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, to one version of the independent variable.
23
Q
Control group
A
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
24
Q
Independent variable (IV)
A
the experimental factor that is manipulated and tested. Ex. studying the effects of a drug on memory, the drug is the IV.
25
Dependent variable (DV)
the experimental factor that is being measured. Ex. studying the effects of a drug on memory, memory is the DV.
26
Confounding variable
a factor other than the IV that might produce an effect in an experiment. Ex. the temperature of the room, external noises, etc.
27
Nature vs Nurture
Some traits, like physical traits, are fixed for the most part. Psychological traits are impacted by the environment. Genes lay the foundation but are pliable
28
Neuron
Nerve cell, the body has billions of them, the main way our body communicates.
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Dendrites
Branching extensions at the cell body. Receives messages from other neurons.
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Axon
Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.
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Terminals of axon (terminal buttons)
Branched ending of axons. Transmit neurotransmitters to other neurons.
32
Action potential
A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.
33
Threshold
When the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
34
All-or-None Response
When depolarizing current exceeds the threshold a neuron will fire, and below threshold it will not.
35
Neurotransmitters
chemicals released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
36
Reuptake
Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons.
Agonist: Chemical that mimics or excites a neurotransmitter. (Example: Taking an SSRI to block serotonin reuptake)
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Antagonist
Chemical that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter. (Example: Taking a DRA to inhibit the overproduction of dopamine)
38
Endorphins
Neurotransmitter that deals with the perception of pleasure and pain. The body’s natural painkiller.
39
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter that plays a role in muscle action, memory, and learning. Malfunctions include Alzhemier’s Disease.
40
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. An oversupply is related to schizophrenia, an undersupply is related to Parkinson’s Disease.
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Serotonin
Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, and sleep. An undersupply is related to depression.
42
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord.
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Somatic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. You have “some” control of this.
45
Autonomic Nervous System
Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles. Functions automatically.
46
Sympathetic Nervous System
division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Gets you ready for fight or flight.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its
energy. Brings you back down after the threat is over.
48
Endocrine System
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.
49
Hormones
chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands and secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body.
50
fMRI
produces images while performing a task (reciting alphabet) **(shows structure and function)**
51
Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]
base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing.
52
Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]
the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
53
Cerebellum
The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. It also plays a role in the formation of procedural memories (implicit or procedural memories, EX. riding a bike)
54
Limbic System
doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex
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Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]
two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to emotion of fear and anger.
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Hippocampus
a structure in the limbic system which is responsible for the formation of most new memories (explicit memories, EX. facts)
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Hypothalamus
lies below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and emotions. Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
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Frontal Lobe
Concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions, and problem-solving.
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Temporal Lobe
Concerned with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory (hippocampus).
60
Occipital Lobe
Located at the back of the brain, behind the parietal lobe and temporal lobe. Concerned with many aspects of vision.
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Parietal Lobe
Concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain.
62
Aphasia
an impairment of language
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Broca’s Area
controls the physical activity of speaking
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Wernicke’s Area
controls language comprehension
65
Plasticity
refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some type of injury or illness.When we are young our brains are more plastic.
66
Psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change how you think and feel and usually produce a tolerance, later using larger doses to produce the same effect
67
Depressants
drugs that slow & calm neural activity
68
Alcohol
impairs judgment & inhibitions & prevents recent events to go into long-term memory.
- is a depressant
69
Stimulant drugs
excite neural activity and speed-up body functions
70
Caffeine and nicotine
- stimulant
increase heart and breathing rates, and other autonomic functions to provide energy
71
Cocaine
induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin & norepinephrine.
- stimulant
72
Hallucinogens
are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
73
LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide)
powerful hallucinogenic drug (ergot fungus) also known as acid.
74
Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves & our environment
75
Parallel processing
processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem at the same time
76
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness - distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
77
Circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular body rhythms (for example, of temperature & wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
78
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
79
REM sleep
rapid eye movement; recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep, because muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
80
REM rebound
tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
81
Insomnia
Recurring problems falling or staying asleep
82
Narcolepsy
Sudden sleep attacks where the afflicted lapses directly in REM sleep
83
Dream
a sequences of images, emotions, & thoughts occurring in a sleeping person’s mind, occur during REM
84
Activation-synthesis theory
the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity spreading up from the brainstem; brain “weaves” stories around the random neural activit
85
Sensation
process by which our sensory receptors & nervous system receive & represent stimulus energies from our environment
86
Bottom-up processing
information processing that begins with the sensory receptors & works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (also called feature detection)
87
Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations
88
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, & smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret
89
Absolute threshold
minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
90
Signal detection theory
theory predicting how & when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold & that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, & alertness
91
Difference threshold
minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (also known as just noticeable difference [jnd])
92
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
93
Pupil
adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
94
Accommodation
process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina
95
Retina
light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods & cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of visual information
96
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, & gray, & are sensitive to movement; rods are necessary for peripheral & twilight vision, when cones don’t respond, 120 million rods
97
Cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina & that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; cones detect fine detail & give rise to color sensations, 6 million cones
98
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, & one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color (explai
99
Opponent-process theory
theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, & black-white) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green & inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red & inhibited by green (explains afterimages)
100
Cochlea
coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
101
Basilar membrane
located in the cochlea, covered in hair cells (cilia), which bend with vibrations and trigger neural impulses to the auditory nerve
102
Sensorineural hearing loss
most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness. Cannot be reversed, but hearing can be semi-restored with a cochlear implant
103
Conduction hearing loss
less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (bones of the middle ear)
104
Place theory
theory that links the pitch that we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (also called place coding). Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds but not low-pitched.
105
Frequency theory
theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch (also called temporal coding)
106
Volley theory
neural cells can alternate firing, achieving a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second
107
Gate-control theory
theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, & is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain
108
Gustation
sense of taste (chemical sense); six taste sensations that have evolutionary benefits
Umami - tells us the food has protein to grow & repair tissues
Oleogustus - tells us the food has fats for energy, insulation, & cell growth
109
Olfactory receptors
cells at the top of the nasal cavity, receive stimuli, activate axons traveling to the brain
Smell is the only sense to bypass the thalamus
Sensory interaction: principle that one sense can influence another, as when smell of food influences taste
Smell + texture + taste = flavor
110
Kinesthesis
our movement sense; our system for sensing the position & movement of individual body parts, millions of sensors in muscles, tendons, joints all over body called proprioceptors
111
Vestibular sense
our balance sense; our sense of body movement & position that enables our sense of balance, controlled by semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
112
Perception
the process of organization and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
113
Perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
114
Selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Also known as the cocktail party effect.
115
Inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
116
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole.
117
Figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
118
Similarity
We group similar figures together.
119
Closure
We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
120
Depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
121
Visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
122
Binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes. *Remember bi means two so you need 2 eyes for disparity.
123
Monocular cues
depth cues that depend on the use of one eye. *Remember mono means one.
124
Retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance – the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
125
Phi Phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, like Christmas lights.
126
Semantic memory
fact based Jeopardy-like information.
127
Procedural memory
how-to memory. Ex. tying shoes.
128
Episodic memory
memories of certain episodes/events. Ex. vacations, birthdays, holidays, prom, etc. Not every episodic memory is a flashbulb memory, but every flashbulb memory is an episodic memory.
129
Prospective memory
remembering not to forget to do something. Ex. I can’t forget to call my boss later today.
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Explicit memory
memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”, such as telling about a vacation or giving directions. Also called declarative memory. Goes through the hippocampus (the part of the limbic system responsible for explicit memories of names, images, and events).
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Implicit memory
procedural, how-to memory that you don’t have to think about, it’s independent of conscious recollection. Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory. Goes through the cerebellum (the part of the brain that plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories).
132
Three Stage of Memory
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
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Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system.
134
storage
the retention of encoded information over time.
135
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
136
Sensory memory
a quick, fleeting memory that is activated by the five senses
137
Short-term/working memory
activated memory that holds a few items (on the average 7) for a brief time (usually 30 seconds) before the information is stored or forgotten. Located in the frontal lobe.
138
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills and experiences.
139
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. We take in a lot of information at the same time, not like a computer in which you can only input one piece of information at a time.
140
Shallow processing
encoding the shapes, looks, or surface structure of things, especially words, not the meanings. It is difficult to remember things if it is only shallowly processed.
141
Deep processing
encoding something according to its semantics.
142
Semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
143
Self-referent processing
encoding something based on how it relates to you. This is a type of deep processing.
144
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
145
Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
146
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
147
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
148
Method of Loci
a mnemonic that helps people remember things by placing them in a familiar place, such as in your house, on a baseball field, etc.
149
Hierarchies
a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts.
150
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
151
Acronym
a type of chunking in which a word is made out of the first letters of the to-be-remembered items. Ex. HOMES (the 5 Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)
152
Amnesia
loss of memory
153
Retrograde amnesia
the inability to remember anything after specific brain surgery or an accident.
154
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident.
155
Dementia
a loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases. It affects memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior.
156
Working memory
a newer understanding of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s second stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
157
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory.
158
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
159
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person needs to only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
160
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
161
Retrieval cues
anchor points used to access the information you want to remember later.
162
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information;
163
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; backward-acting.
164
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
165
Concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
166
Hierarchies
breaking things down from broad to specific. Superordinate (broad category), basic (most common), or subordinate. Ex. Fruit > apple > Granny Smith
167
Prototypes
a mental image of best example of a category. Ex. most people think of a robin, as opposed to a flamingo, when they hear the word “bird”.
168
Algorithm
a logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem. Ex. typing in 0000, 0001, 0002, 0003, etc. to figure out a pin number for an ATM card.
169
Heuristic
a general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions to a problem. Ex. using birthdays for a pin number.
170
Insight
just coming up with the answer, the “aha” moment
171
Functional fixedness (obstacle to problem solving)
the tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual way or customary way. As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects.
172
Availability heuristic (obstacle to problem solving)
judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or new reports. Ex. not wanting to fly after 9/11.
173
Representative heuristic (obstacle to problem solving)
judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example. Ex. Not thinking a tall, skinny man who likes to read would be a truck driver.
174
Confirmation bias (obstacle to problem solving)
a preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence. Ex. only looking at good reviews of something you want.
175
Belief perseverance (obstacle to problem solving)
holding onto a belief even after its been discredited. Ex. believing that fad diets work.
176
Fluid intelligence
intelligence that includes reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing. ***Declines with age. Think of the difficulty older people have w/technology.
177
Crystallized intelligence
intelligence that is based on life experiences. ***Increases with age.
178
Analytical intelligence
the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare and contrast.
179
Creative intelligence
the ability to come up with new ideas, hypothesize, theorize, and use divergent thinking.
180
Practical intelligence
the ability to deal with everyday life skills.
181
Multiple intelligences
independent intelligences which include a broad range of skills that go beyond traditional school smarts.
182
Emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions, part of social intelligence.
183
Aptitude tests
tests used to predict future performance, such as SATs and LSATs.
184
Achievement tests
tests used to measure what was learned, such as SOLs, AP exams, and unit tests.
185
Split-half reliability
looking at the degree of similarity between scores on 2 halves of the test. Is the 1st half consistent with the 2nd half? Are the odd and even questions consistent?
186
Self-fulfilling prophecy
when a person’s expectations of another person leads that person to behave in an expected way.
187
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
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