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Living Sys./Bio | 09. > Unit 3: LC #3/Culminating Event > Flashcards

Unit 3: LC #3/Culminating Event Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

How is DNA structured?

A

DNA has two individual strands which bind to each other through base pairs (A - T, G - C), creating a double helix shape

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2
Q

How are Chromosomes structured?

A

Each Chromosome is made up of tightly coiled (supercoiled) DNA strands, creating and supporting an “X” like shape

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3
Q

How is mRNA structured?

A

mRNA has one individual strand which holds 4 bases (A, U, G, C), creating a single helix shape

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4
Q

What are Nucleotides? How are they structured?

A

Nucleotides are the monomers of Nucleic Acid who’s bases make up Amino Acid sequences

  • 1 Sugar Molecule
  • 1 Phosphate Group
  • 1 Nitrogenous Base
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5
Q

What are Genes?

A

A distinct pattern or sequence of nucleotide bases within a chromosome

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6
Q

What are the purpose(s) of Genes?

A

The specialized pattern of Genes determine the traits of the organism they reside in

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7
Q

What is the difference between the structure of DNA and mRNA?

A

While DNA has pairing base pairs to make a double helix shape, mRNA only has base pairs on one strand, making a single helix shape

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8
Q

What is the function of mRNA?

A

It carries messages from the DNA to active sites of the body in order to tell it how to make proteins, since original DNA molecules must stay within nuclei. (This is called protein synthesis)

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9
Q

What is Protein Synthesis?

A

The processes in which cells (being instructed by DNA/RNA) make protein for the body.

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10
Q

What are the steps of Protein Synthesis and where do they occur?

A
  1. Transcription - A strand of DNA being copied into mRNA for the message to be carried (it occurs in the Nucleus in Eukaryotes, and the Cytoplasm in Prokaryotes)
  2. Translation - mRNA using the DNA’s genetic information to instruct cells how to link Amino Acids and create Protein (It occurs in the Cytoplasm and Rough E.R)
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11
Q

In Translation, how are Nitrogenous Bases read?

A

Being packaged in Codons, Nitrogenous Bases are read in triplets, 3 at a time before the next and in 3 stations

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12
Q

What happens after all Nitrogenous Bases are read and turned into Amino Acids? (Protein Synthesis)

A

The Amino Acids formed from Translation eventually fold into shape atop one another to make a globular ball looking shape known as a Protein

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13
Q

How does the codon reading begin in Translation?

A

The site of production must first read the codon instructing it to start reading, which is AUG, or “Met”

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14
Q

How does the codon reading stop in Translation?

A

The site of protein production stops reading once it scans one of three codons instruction it to stop reading, which are UAA, UAG, and UGA, all decoding to “Stop”

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15
Q

What is the overall relationship between DNA, Proteins, and Functions of Life?

A

DNA is responsible for providing genetic code in order to create Proteins, which in turn give the bearer of these Proteins traits, which determine their life functions

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16
Q

How many Genes are present in a Chromosome?

A

Hundreds to thousands of Genes can be within a Chromosome

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17
Q

Where do Chromosomes come from, and how many are there?

A

Half of your Chromosomes come your birth mother (23), and half from your father (23), making 46 total chromosomes in a human

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18
Q

What is DNA Replication?

A

The process in which DNA makes an identical copy of itself through/during cell division

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19
Q

What are the steps of DNA Replication, and what happens in them?

A
  1. Initiation - DNA helicase unzips it into two, exposing half of it’s bases and getting ready for pairing
  2. Elongation - Nucleotides searching for matching bases to align and bond with, using DNA polymerase and primase
  3. Termination - The completion of DNA Replication after Okazaki Fragments are bonded by DNA ligase, resulting in two remaining DNA molecules ready for work
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20
Q

What are the 4 Enzymes involved in DNA replication, and what do they do?

A
  • DNA Helicase - “Unzipping Enzyme”, it unzips the DNA
  • DNA Polymerase - “The Builder” Builds new DNA strand after Helicase unzips
  • DNA Primase - “The Initializer”, Indicates and marks where DNA Polymerase needs to go for building
  • DNA Ligase - “The Gluer” - Glues DNA fragments together after being built, in order to have a fully-functioning double helix DNA strand
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21
Q

Which steps of DNA Replication involve which Enzymes?

A
  1. Initiation - (Helicase) unzips through DNA strand at point of origin, then different parts are marked by (Primase)
  2. Elongation - After seeing marked points done by (Primase), (DNA Polymerase) comes in and builds up a new strand step-by-step at marked locations
  3. Termination - (Ligase) comes in and glues Okazaki Fragments together at Primer locations, which eventually form an entirely new DNA molecules
22
Q

What are Okazaki Fragments?

A

(Also known as Lagging Strands), Okazaki Fragments are short sequences of DNA nucleotide strands which need to be linked and glued by DNA Ligase in order for the completion of a new DNA Molecule. This is because they can only be read from their 5’ end to their 3’ end, making polymerase go back and forth

23
Q

What are Leading and Lagging strands in DNA replication?

A
  • Leading Strand - Strand(s) of DNA that are synthesized by continuously adding nucleotides to the 3’ end
  • Lagging Strand - Strand(s) of DNA that are synthesized by adding nucleotides to the 5’ end in portions
24
Q

PRACTICE! What is the mRNA strand version of this DNA sequence? (NO NOTES!)

AAA-CGT-ACG-CCC-AGT

A

UUU-GCA-UGC-GGG-UCA

(If you can, do it over with the paper to find out the amino acid sequence!)

25
Q

What is the Central Dogma?

A

A theory of biology which states that genetic information always only flows in a single direction

*DNA to RNA to Protein

*RNA to Protein

It always leads to Protein

26
Q

What are the first two steps in Meiosis and what happens in them?

A

Prophase - Chromosomes condense and become visible, nucleus disintegrates, and homologous chromosomes pair into tetrads, along with crossing over

Metaphase - Tetrads line up down the cell equator

27
Q

What are the last two steps of Meiosis and what happens in them?

A

Anaphase - Homologous chromosomes split towards opposite cell ends,

Telophase - When the chromosomes reach opposite poles, two independent cells begin to form

28
Q

How does meiosis lead to genetic variation?

A

Due to Crossing Over in meiosis, genetic variation can happen, along with the sharing of DNA strands between paired chromosomes

29
Q

How do Mitosis and Meiosis Compare?

A

Similarities
* Both involve cell division
* Both have 4 general stages
* Both include DNA Synthesis

Differences
* Mitosis produces somatic cells,
Meiosis is for gametes
* Meiosis causes genetic variation
* In Mitosis, chromosome number stays the same

30
Q

What is Variation and what contributes to it?

A

Variation is any general differences between cells or organisms. It can be caused by mutation, random mating, or environmental factors

31
Q

What is a Karyotype?

A

An organism’s complete set of chromosomes, derived from an image done in a lab.

32
Q

What is Non-Disjunction (in Karyotypes)?

A

Failure of any amount of homologous chromosomes/sister chromatids to separate normally during cell division, resulting in abnormal chromosome distribution

33
Q

Who is (Gregor) Mendel and what were his contributions to genetics?

A

Mendel was a botanist who did work with pea plants to explore genetic variation. He discovered and created the fundamental Laws of Dominance, Segregation, and Independent Assortment. He is commonly referred to as “The Father of Genetics”

34
Q

What are the 3 Fundamental laws of genetics?

A
  • Law of Dominance - In heterozygotes, one trait will conceal another trait’s characteristic
  • Law of Segregation - When an organism makes gametes, each gamete randomly receives just one gene copy
  • Law of Independent Assortment - Describes how different genes independently separate from each other when reproductive cells develop
35
Q

What are Heterozygotes, Homozygotes, and Hybrids?

A
  • Heterozygote - A zygote which contains two different alleles
  • Homozygote - A zygote which contains the same two alleles
  • Hybrid - An cell resulted from a male and female reproductive cell of differing species’
36
Q

What does it mean to be Dominant or Recessive (in traits)?

A
  • Dominant (trait) - Trait that covers the Recessive variant of the same trait
  • Recessive (trait) - A trait that is covered by the Dominant trait, only taking effect when the organism is homozygous
37
Q

What is an Allele, Gamete, and Somatic Cell?

A
  • Allele - Matching genes (one from biological mother, one from biological father)
  • Gamete - Reproductive cell of an animal or plant (Females: Egg Cells/Males: Sperm Cells)
  • Somatic Cell - Any cell of an organism that is not a Gamete
38
Q

What is a Genotype, Phenotype, and Pure Breeding?

A
  • Genotype - Genetic composition of an individual organism (genetic statistics/traits)
  • Phenotype - Observable traits of an individual (physical statistics/traits)
  • Pure Breeding - Breeding that results in offspring with identical phenotypes as their parent
39
Q

What are Genetic Mutations?

A

Mutations result from changes in/to DNA sequence, causing abnormalities in Amino Acid production

40
Q

How many kinds of Mutations are there? What are they called?

A

There are 4 different Mutation types (The test may just ask for 3)

  • FRAMESHIFT - Reading frame has been fed the wrong codon, changing the AA sequence from that point forward
  • MISSENSE - mRNA read wrong, causing a singular AA change
  • SILENT - mRNA read wrong, but no change(s) to AA
  • NONSENSE - mRNA read wrong, producing an AA that forces reading to STOP
41
Q

How many causes of Mutations are there? What are they? What mutations do they cause?

A

There are 3 different causes of Mutations.

  • DELETION - A base is lost/deleted (This results in a FRAMESHIFT Mutation)
  • Insertion - An additional base is added/inserted (This results in a FRAMESHIFT Mutation)
  • Substitution - One base is swapped/substituted for another (This may result in a MISSENSE, SILENT, or NONSENSE Mutation)

(REMEMBER: Deletion and Insertion will ALWAYS result in FRAMESHIFT Mutations!)

42
Q

What order are DNA Replication Enzymes used in?

A
  1. DNA Helicase (Unzips)
  2. DNA Primase (Marks build points)
  3. DNA Polymerase (Builds at Primer points)
  4. DNA Ligase (Glues the fragments together to complete the DNA strand)
43
Q

What is Genetic Testing? Who might have it done?

A

Genetic Testing is a type of chromosomal test that can identify changes within genes to help find chromosomal disorders. A person who’s family has a history of chromosomal disorders might get it done.

44
Q

What are some advantages and disadvantages of Genetic Testing?

A

Advantages
* Being made aware of disorders early on
* Added ability to make life decisions
* Greater general health understanding

Disadvantages
* Increased stress/anxiety
* May not be eligible if you do not meet testing requirements
* Provides limited info of disorder(s)

45
Q

What is Transcription? (Further Explained)

A

Transcription is the first step in Protein Synthesis, it occurs by copying a DNA sequence segment into mRNA, and has 3 steps, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination

46
Q

What are the 3 steps of Transcription, and what happens in them?

A
  1. Initiation - Ribosomal subunit binds to the start of mRNA sequence
  2. Elongation - RNA polymerase walks along the DNA strand in ‘3 to ‘5 direction
  3. Termination - Transcribing RNA polymerase releases DNA template
47
Q

What are the 3 steps of Translation in Protein Synthesis and what happens in them?

A
  1. Initiation - Ribosomal subunit binds to the start of the mRNA codon sequence at rRNA
  2. Elongation - The ribosome continues translating each codon in turn using tRNA
  3. Termination - Occurs when the translating ribosome reads a STOP codon, then it falls onto itself, creating a globular ball known as a protein
48
Q

What are the functions of all RNA used in Protein Synthesis?

A

mRNA (Messenger RNA) - Carry DNA instructions to active site

rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) - Also known as active sites, these RNA get fed mRNA’s code in order to help make protein

tRNA (Transport RNA) - These RNA carry amino acids that bind with their respective codons fed through rRNA

49
Q

In which cell division type does division happen twice?

A

Meiosis

50
Q

True or False: Meiosis Replicates its chromosomes, increasing from 23 to 46 per cell

A

FALSE: Mitosis replicates chromosomes, while Meiosis cuts the number of chromosomes per cell in half

51
Q

How many cells are produced from Mitosis? What about Meiosis?

A

In Mitosis, 2 daughter cells are formed due to it having a single stage.

In Meiosis, 4 gamete cells are formed, due to it having two stages

52
Q

What is a Haploid Cell? How did they get their name?

A

(New cells created from Meiosis. They are called Haploid cells because they have HALF the chromosomes of their original cell that started Meiosis

Living Sys./Bio | 09. (8 decks)

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