Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Living Sys./Bio | 09. > Final Exam 2023 Review > Flashcards

Final Exam 2023 Review Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the parts of a plant cell? What do they do?

A
  • Cell Wall (ONLY IN PLANT CELLS) - Rigid layer which provides structure and support
  • Cell Membrane - Layer within/behind the cell wall, controls substances moving in/out
  • Nucleus - Stores DNA of cell, “control center”
  • Chloroplast (ONLY IN PLANT CELLS) - Site of photosynthesis, absorbs chlorophyll
  • Lysosome - Site of waste disposal
  • Ribosome - Site of protein synthesis, “protein factory”
  • Mitochondria - Breaks down carbs/sugar molecules for energy, “powerhouse of the cell”
  • Cytoplasm - Gelatinous fluid filling the inside of the cell

Note that these are not all parts of a plant cell - only those on test

Also note that both cells have vacuoles, but plant cells have one large, central vacuole, and animal cells have multiple, smaller ones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What are the parts of an animal cell? What do they do?

A
  • Cell Membrane - Layer within/behind the cell wall, controls substances moving in/out
  • Nucleus - Stores DNA of cell, “control center”
  • Lysosome - Sites of waste disposal
  • Ribosome - Site of protein synthesis, “protein factory”
  • Mitochondria - Breaks down carbs/sugar molecules for energy, *“powerhouse of the cell”
  • Cytoplasm - Gelatinous fluid filling the inside of the cell

Note that these are not all parts of a plant cell - only those on test

Also note that both cells have vacuoles, but plant cells have one large, central vacuole, and animal cells have multiple, smaller ones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is sexual vs. asexual reproduction? Which organisms do which? How many chromosomes are found in the body?

A
  • Sexual reproduction - Reproduction of offspring between two individuals exchanging genetic information
  • Asexual reproduction - Reproduction of offspring by one individual, creating a virtually identical copy of the parent

Animals sexually reproduce while plants and bacteria asexually reproduce

There are 46 chromosomes in the body (excluding the gametes, and 23 in each gamete (egg and sperm)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is mitosis vs. meiosis? Which cells do which?

A
  • Mitosis - Process of cell divison which produces two identical daughter cells and full DNA
  • Meiosis - Process of cell division which produces genetically unique cells and half as much DNA

Mitosis occurs in all eukaryotic cells (cells belonging to multicellular organisms) while meiosis occurs in all prokaryotic cells (single-celled organisms)

The number of chromosomes remains the same for daughter cells in mitosis, and splits in meiosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the phases of mitosis?

A
  1. Prophase - Chromatin condense (into chromasomes)
  2. Metaphase - Nucleus dissolves and chromosomes condense to allign across the cell’s center
  3. Anaphase - Sister chromatids (both parts of the chromosomes) separate and get pulled to opposite cell ends
  4. Telophase - Nuclear membrane forms around each chromosome set to separate nuclear DNA from cytoplasm
  5. Cytokinesis - Divison of cytoplasm, separating into two identical daughter cells

Note that interphase happens before prophase, as it is where a cell spends most of its life, resting and doing normal cell things before/after replication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the phases of meiosis?

(phase I)

A
  1. Prophase I - Chromatin condense (into chromasomes),nucleus dissolves, and they form a tetrad
  2. Metaphase I - Tetrads line up down the cell equator
  3. Anaphase I - Tetrads split up and chromosomes move to opposite cell ends
  4. Telophase I - Independent cells begin to form, and nuclei begin to form around chromosomes
  5. Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm splits, creating two cells

A tetrad is a conjoined pair of homologous chromosomes

Note that interphase happens before prophase, as it is where a cell spends most of its life, resting and doing normal cell things before/after replication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What are the phases of meiosis?

(phase II)

A
  1. Prophase II - Nuclei in both new cells disappear
  2. Metaphase II - Chromosomes line up down the middle of their cells, single file
  3. Anaphase II - Sister chromatids split up down opposite poles
  4. Telophase II - 4 haploid daughter cells are formed from split chromatids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What are the 4 macromolecules? Their monomers and polymers?

A
  • Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides, polysaccharides
  • Lipids - Fatty acids/glycerol, triglycerides
  • Proteins - Amino acids, polypeptide chain
  • Nucleic Acids - Nucleotides, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)/ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Monomers are in standard font, polymers are in italics

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is photosynthesis vs. cellular respiration? Which organisms use which? Why use photosynthesis? What are the equations for both?

A
  • Photosynthesis - Process of energy synthization with carbon dioxide and water (used by green plants)
  • Cellular respiration - Process of energy synthinization from stores sugars within the body (used by animals)

(Balanced) equation for photosynthesis: (6)CO2 + (6)H2O -> C6H12O6 + (6)02

(Balanced) equation for cellcular respiration: C6H12O6 + (6)O2 –> (6)CO2 + (6)H2O + ATP

Plants require/depend on photosynthesis for energy, as plants cannot consume organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the steps of cellular respiration? Where do they all occur?

A
  1. Glycolsis - Splitting of glucose to be captured into ATP Pyruvate, occuring in the cytoplasm
  2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) - Absorbs pyruvate and produces 3 things: CO2, (small amount of) ATP, and NADH + FADH. It occurs in the mitochondria
  3. Electron Transport Chain - Breaking down of glucose (to produce sugar as ATP), to absorb as nutrients. It occurs in the mitochondria

About 32 ATP molecules are present in the electron transport chain

About 36 ATP molecules are produed from one glucose molecule

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is chemosynthesis? How does it differ from photosynthesis? What are their similarities?

A

Chemosynthesis is the synthesis of organic compounds in the absence of sunlight. While photosynthesis uses light energy to synthesize, chemosynthesis uses chemical energy

Chemosynthesis usually occurs in plants at the bottom of the ocean

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

How is DNA structured? How are bases paired?

A

DNA is structured as a double helix shape, which resembles a twisted ladder with sets of paired bases. The bases are listed below:

  • Adenine (A)
  • Cystosine (C)
  • Guanine (G)
  • Thymine (T)

Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)

Cystosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

Remember that all bases make up 20% of their DNA structure each

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

How is RNA structured? How are bases paired?

A

RNA is structured as a helix shape, which resembles a twisted half-ladder with sets of single bases. The bases are listed below:

  • Adenine (A)
  • Cystosine (C)
  • Guanine (G)
  • Uracil (U)

Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U)

Cystosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is DNA replication? What are the steps in it? Which enzymes take part in this process and how are they involved?

A

The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself (during cell division). It has 3 steps, and they are:

  1. Initiation - (DNA Helicase) unzips DNA into two, exposing half of it’s bases and getting ready for pairing
  2. Elongation - (DNA Polymerase) builds nucleotides on bases marked by (DNA Primase) to align and bond with
  3. Termination - The completion of DNA replication after Okazaki Fragments are binded/glued by (DNA Ligase), resulting in a fully binded DNA molecule ready for work

  • DNA Helicase - Unzipping enzyme (unzips DNA)
  • DNA Polymerase - Building enzyme (builds nucleotides)
  • DNA Primase - Intiliazing/priming enzyme (marks points for nucleotide binding)
  • DNA Ligase - Gluing enzyme (binds nucleotide bases together)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How many types of RNA are there? What are they called and what do they do?

A

There are 3 primary types of RNA

  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) - It carries and provides instructions from DNA in order to conduct Protein Synthesis
  • Transport RNA (tRNA) - It carries Amino Acids for distribution once it reads the genetic code during Translation
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - It provides structure/shelter, and acts as a catalyst during Translation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

How many kinds of DNA Mutations are there? What are they called?

A

There are 4 different mutation types:

  • FRAMESHIFT - Reading frame has been fed the wrong codon, changing the AA sequence from that point forward
  • **MISSENSE **- mRNA read wrong, causing a singular AA change
  • **SILENT **- mRNA read wrong, but no change(s) to AA
  • NONSENSE- mRNA read wrong, producing an AA that forces reading to STOP

AA = Amino Acid

17
Q

What are the steps of Protein Synthesis and where do they occur?

A
  1. Transcription - A strand of DNA being copied into mRNA for the message to be carried (it occurs in the Nucleus in Eukaryotes, and the Cytoplasm in Prokaryotes)
  2. Translation - mRNA using the DNA’s genetic information to instruct cells how to link Amino Acids and create Protein (It occurs in the Cytoplasm and Rough E.R)
18
Q

What are the steps of transcription in protein synthesis?

A
  1. Initiation - RNA Polymerase binds to a region of a gene, signaling the DNA strand to unwind, beginning reading
  2. Elongation - Ribosome continues reading each codon in turn, adding amino acids to the growing AA chain, continuing until all codons have been read
  3. Termination - End of transcription, achieved after the reading ribosome encounters a STOP codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA)
19
Q

What are the steps of translation in protein synthesis?

A
  1. Initiation - Small ribosomal subunit bonds to the start of the mRNA sequence
  2. Elongation - rRNA continues to read codons in turn, adding to the growing polypeptide chain
  3. Termination - End of transcription, achieved after the reading rRNA encounters a STOP codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA)

rRNA = ribosomal RNA

20
Q

How many mutations can occur during protein synthesis? What are they?

How many causes of mutations are there? What are they?

A

There are 4 possible mutations that may occur during protein synthesis:

  • Frameshift - Amino acid sequence changed from the point of mutation until the end of the polypeptide chain
  • Missense - A single AA sequence has been changed
  • Silent - Codon changed, but no change to AA produced
  • Nonsense - Read codon codes for a “STOP” amino acid

There are 3 possible causes of mutation:

  • Deletion - Always results in frameshift mutation
  • Insertion - Always results in frameshift mutation
  • Substitution - May** result in a missense, silent, or nonsense** mutation
21
Q

What is a karyotype? How/why are they performed and used?

A

A karyotype is a laboratory-produced image diagram of an organism’s complete set of chromosomes. Karyotyping is a test to examine chromosomes in a sample of cells.

Karyotypes might be used to help identify risk of genetic problems as a result of a disorder, disease, or heredity

22
Q

How can we use karyotypes to identify chromosomal disorders? What are 3 examples of chromosomal disorders?

A

Certain genetic problems can be identified based on the number or arrangment of chromosomes present within a karyotype. Possible chromosomal disorders include:

  • Trisonomy 21 (Down syndrome) - An extra copy of chromosome 21 in a gamete before conception, resulting in three copies of chromosome 21, instead of two
  • Trisonomy 18 - An extra copy of chromosome 18 in a gamete before conception, resulting in three copies of chromosome 18, instead of two
  • Trisonomy 13 - An extra copy of chromosome 13 in a gamete before conception, resulting in three copies of chromosome 13, instead of two

Memorize these examples, you’ll need to provide three of them 4 final

23
Q

What is the difference between evolution and natural selection?

A
  • Evolution - Gradual change in inherited traits of individuals within a species over the course of many generations
  • Natural selection - Survival mechanism in which individuals of a species acquire traits to better adapt to their environment
24
Q

What is the theory of evolution as proposed/described by Charles Darwin?

A

In his book of evolution, Darwin explains that species can change over time, that new species come from pre-existing species, and that all species share a common ancestor.

25
Q

What is the theory of natural selection as proposed/described by Charles Darwin?

A

In his book of natural selection, Darwin explains that because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations.

REMEMBER: Components include: Variation, inheritence, selection, time/adaptation

26
Q

What is common ancestry?

A

The concept of all related organisms (have) descended from one common ancestor

27
Q

What is the order of classification in organisms?

A

Also known as Taxonomic Rank, the order of classification regarding organsisms is as follows (from broadest to narrowest):

1. Domain - Bacteria, archaea, eukarya
2. Kingdom - Animals, plants, fungi, etc.
3. Phylum - Major group of animals sharing a major characteristic
4. Class - Animals sharing a common attribute
5. Order - Primates, rodents, etc.
6. Family - Carnivora, herbivora, etc.
7. Genus - Narrowest stage before species, phylogenically related species
8. Species - Specific animal species (fox, bear, human, etc.)

Be prepared to order the ranks from Kingdom-Species

28
Q

What is the carbon cycle? What are the spheres involved? How is carbon recycled?

A

Nature’s way of reusing carbon atoms through the 4 spheres: (Atmosphere, Biosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere)

There are 4 ways that carbon is recyled through the spheres, they are:

  • Photosynthesis
  • Decomposition
  • Respiration
  • Combustion
29
Q

What is an energy pyramid? What are the trophic levels within it?

A

Graphical representation of energy flow throughout an ecosystem. There are 5 levels within it, and they include:

1. Scavengers/decomposers - Feed off decaying matter
2. Primary producers - Plants that photosynthesize
3. Primary consumers - Consumers that eat primary producers (herbivores)
4. Secondary consumers - Consumers that (mostly) eat secondary consumers (carnivores)
5. Tertiary consumers - Consumers that (mostly) eat secondary consumers (apex predators)

The primary source of energy for all levels is sunlight (heat energy)

Remember the 10% rule - As each trophic level increases, only 10% of energy is carried upwards, therefore scavengers/decomposers carry the most energy

30
Q

How are populations measured?

A

Populations are measured through (trendline) graphs, there are two types of graphs: J-curves (exponential) and S-curves (logistic growth)

J-Curves: Trendline graph that shows a dramatic drop from the starting point, followed by an exponential gain, creating a “J” shape (in populations, J-curves are the product of a population trend with no carrying capacity)

S-Curves: Trendline graph that shows a “logistic growth”, continuously moving upwards from the starting point with fluctuating rises and drops. S-curves will level at a specific point and continue onwards, leaving an “S” shape (in populations, S-curves are the product of a population trend with a carrying capacity, constantly going above and below it)

31
Q

What are some factors that can affect Carrying Capacity?

A

Environmental factors like adequate food (or lack thereof), shelter, water, (reproductive) mates, natural disaster(s), human interaction, and so on can have minor or drastic affects on an environment’s carrying capacity

32
Q

What is Biodiversity?

A

Biodiversity is simply all the different kinds of life that can/may be found in a particular area (environment). It also refers to the different plants, organisms, and bacteria that make up the earth as we know it

33
Q

What are the parts of Ecological Succession?

A

There are 6 Parts of Ecological Succession:

  • Primary Succession - Colonization of a barren environment
  • Secondary Succession - Colonization of a ecosystem that faced a serious disturbance
  • Disturbance - Event that causes large/rapid change (within an environment)
  • Pioneer Species - First species in the colonization process
  • Opportunistic Species - Second species in continuing colonization
  • Climax Community - Third and final species in colonzation
34
Q

What is are the levels of organization from atoms to biosphere?

A
  1. Atoms
  2. Molecules
  3. Organelles
  4. Tissue
  5. Organs
  6. Organ systems
  7. Organisms
  8. Populations
  9. Communities
  10. Ecosystems
  11. Biosphere

Memorize at least 1-10, as this question might appear on the exam

35
Q

What are the major systems of the body?

A
  • Nervous system - Brain, spinal cord, nerve endings
  • Respiratory system - Mouth, throat, lungs, diaphragm
  • Circulatory system - Heart, veins, arteries
  • Endocrine system - Hormone glands, pancreas, testes and ovaries
  • Digestive system - Mouth, throat, liver, stomach, small + large intestine, rectum, anus
  • Intugumentary system - Skin, hair, nails
  • Reproductive system - Fallopian tubes, ovaries, uterus, vagina (female). Penis, urethra, testes (male)
  • Skeletal system - Bones
  • Muscular system - Muscles
  • Urinary system - Kidneys, bladder, urethra
  • Lymphatic system - Spleen, thymus, lymph nodes

Highlighted, non-italic font is what will be required for drawing

FIND OUT/MEMORIZE: How organ systems keep each-other in homeostasis

36
Q

What is the scientific method? What are the parts of it?

A

Steps of the scientific method:

  1. Observation/question
  2. Hypothesize
  3. Predict
  4. Experiment
  5. Analyze
  6. Conclude

Parts of the scientific method:

  • Dependent variable: What you are measuring/what is affected in the experiment
  • Independent variable: What is being manipulated to affect the dependent variable
  • Control: Choosing what gets affected and how
  • Constant: A part that does not change during the experiment

Living Sys./Bio | 09. (8 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions