Unit 2 Exam Chap 6,7,8 & 9 Flashcards
aim
a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation
hypothesis
a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables (events or characteristics)
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated in order to measure its effect on the dependent variable
dependent variable
the variable that the researcher uses to observe and measure the effects of the independent variable
qualitative data
non numerical information involving the participants experience of what is being studied
quantitative data
numerical information about the “quantity” or amount of what is being studied
extraneous variable
any factor that is not the independent variable which can affect the experiments dependent variable
-situational
-participant
-experiementer
eg. time of day
can be controlled by.. eg. consistency
experimental group
exposed to IV
control group
NOT exposed to IV
conclusion
WAS HYPOTHESIS SUPPORTED??
a decision about what the results obtained from a research investigaton
-what were the results?
generalisation
the extent of results can be applied study to a wider population, determines validity
sample
part of the population that is selected for research purposes
population
the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn and to which the researcher will seek to generalise (apply) the results of their investigation.
representative sample
a sample that closely resembles the population from which is it drawn in key characteristics
random sampling
ensures every member of the popular of research interest has equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample
convenience sampling
involves selecting participants based on their accessibility and availablity to the researcher
stratified sampling
process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups in such a way each subgroup is represented
confidentiality
privacy, protection and security of a participants personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements
debriefing
ensures that the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experiments aims, results and conclusions
informed consent
ensures that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment including potential risks (both physical and psychological) before agreeing to participate in the study
deception
permissible when participant knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect the behaviour while participating in study
voluntary participation
ensures no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in the experiment and they freely choose to be involved.
withdrawal rights
involves a participant being able to freely discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty
mean, median and mode
mean- adding all number and dividing by the amount of numbers
median-middle number
mode- number that occurs the most
Person Perception
refers to the mental processes we use to think about and evaluate other people.
- person perception leads us to make judgements based on limited information that may be inaccurate, first impressions can be influenced by expectations, biases, and incomplete information. aka physical cues
attitude
an evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.
tricomponent model-
affective component (feelings)-
a refers to the emotions, reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, event or issue.
eg. “i feel scared when i see a snake”
behavioural component (actions)-
the way in which attitude is expressed through our actions
eg. “i avoid snakes and scream if i see one”
cognitive component (beliefs)-
beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event or issue.
eg. “i think snakes are gross and dangerous”
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant psychological state that occurs when people become aware that there is inconsistenty among their various beliefs, attitudes or other cognition,
or
that their behaviour conflicts their cognitions.
what’s a stereotype?
a stereotype is a generalisation about the personal characteristics of the members of a societal group
-stereotypes tend to be fixed and resistent to change
-it can lead to social stigma
prejudice
negative attitude towards another person or social group, formed in advance of any experience with that person or group.
discrimination
takes place when a person or a social group is treated differently than others
social categorisation- what are in groups and out groups?
ingroups- any group which you belong to or identify with
out groups- any group you do not belong to or identify with
what is attribution?
the process by which we explain the cause of our own or another persons bahaviour
influences of media on behaviour
tv-
use of education kids learn words
Exposure to aggression and violence
Video games -
Can be used to educate in train
Excess can cause bad hygiene due to distractions
Social media -
Fostering a supportive social network
Can be a distractor and impact learning
Advertising-
Useful to those who shop online
Unrealistic life ideas perpetuated by ads
group
is any collection of two or more people who interact with and influence one another and who share a common purpose.
status
refers to the importance of an individuals position in the group, as perceived by members of the group
power
refers to an individual or groups ability to control or influence another person or group, even when they try to resist this influence
reward power
Power through control over rewards
Coercive power
Power through control over punishments or other force
Legitimate power
Power through a right to require and demand obedience
Referent power
power through respect
Expert power
Power through superior abilities
Informational power
Power through access to and use of informational resources
SPE aims
To explore how situational factors and assigned roles influence behavior in a simulated prison setting.
SPE hypothesis
Participants will conform to their roles as guards or prisoners and exhibit extreme behaviors.
SPE participants
24 male college students, selected for psychological stability and physical similarity.
SPE results
Guards became abusive, prisoners became submissive and emotionally distressed, leading to the experiment’s early termination.
SPE Conclusion
The study demonstrated that people would conform to assigned roles and that power dynamics could lead to extreme behaviors
SPE ethical issued
Informed consent, psychological harm, lack of intervention, inadequate debriefing.
SPE IV and DV
iv- role assigned
dv- behaviours
obidience
occurs when we follow the commands of someone with authority, or the rules, or laws of our society.
milligrams experiment aims, IV, DV, hypothesis and participants
Aim-To investigate the extent to which people would obey authority figures, even when the actions conflicted with their conscience.
Hypothesis -Milgram hypothesized that people would obey authority figures even when asked to perform harmful actions, due to the strong influence of authority.
Independent Variable (IV)- The authority figure’s presence and commands (the experimenter’s instructions).
Dependent Variable (DV)- The level of shock the participant was willing to administer to the learner.
Participants- 40 male participants aged 20–50, from various professions and educational backgrounds.
milligrams experiments results and ethical issues
Key Results - 65% of participants administered the maximum 450-volt shock.
- All participants went up to at least 300 volts, at which point the learner screamed and fell silent.
Ethical Issues 1. Deception: Participants were misled about the true purpose of the experiment (they thought the shocks were real).
2. Informed Consent: While participants consented to take part, they were not fully informed about the nature of the study or the potential distress it would cause.
3. Psychological Harm: Many participants showed signs of stress, such as sweating, nervous laughter, and even one participant having a seizure.
4. Right to Withdraw: Although participants were told they could leave at any time, the experimenter’s prompts (“Please continue”) made it difficult for participants to feel free to withdraw.
5. Debriefing: The participants were not adequately debriefed immediately after the study, and many were left with feelings of distress, believing they had caused real harm to the learner.
conformity
tendency to adjust once thought feelings of behaviours so that they are more consistent with those of other people, or with accepted standards about how person should behave in certain situations
asches experiment on conformity
im To investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could influence an individual to conform, even when the group’s answer is obviously wrong.
Hypothesis Asch hypothesized that participants would conform to the majority opinion, even if it was incorrect, due to group pressure.
Independent Variable (IV) The presence and responses of confederates who provided either correct or incorrect answers (the group majority).
Dependent Variable (DV) The participant’s response to the comparison lines (whether they conformed to the group’s incorrect answer or gave the correct response).
Participants 123 male college students, each taking part in groups of 7–9 people (with the real participant always seated last or second-to-last).
Key Results - 37% of participants conformed to the wrong answers on the critical trials.
- 75% of participants conformed at least once.
- 25% of participants never conformed.
Ethical Issues 1. Deception: Participants were deceived about the true nature of the study, believing it was a “vision test” rather than a study on conformity.
2. Informed Consent: The participants did not know they were taking part in a conformity experiment, which violated the principle of informed consent.
3. Psychological Harm: The study caused some participants stress, as they were put in a situation where they were forced to go against their own perceptions to fit in with the group. Some later reported feeling embarrassed or upset.
4. Right to Withdraw: Although participants could technically withdraw, the pressure to conform made it hard for them to feel comfortable doing so.
DeIndividuation
Reduce self awareness, inhibiting feelings of personal responsibility and inner restraint that can occur when in a crowd
group size
His results showed that conformity increased with group size
unanimity
complete agreement, among the other group members as to what the answer is.
informational influence
occurs when conformity results from a need for direction and information on how to respond in a specific situation.
normative influence
to conform occurs when our response in a group situation is guided by one or more social norms.
culture
) than in other parts of the world such as Africa, Fiji and Asia (e.g. Hong Kong and Japan).
social loafing
the tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone.
sensation vs perception
sensation- Detection of raw sensory input (e.g., light, sound) Physical process involving sensory receptors
perception-
Interpretation and organization of sensory input Cognitive process involving the brain
attention
the process of focusing on specific stimuli or aspects of the sensory environment whilst ignoring and therefore excluding others.
sustained attention
maintenance of attention on a specific stimulus or task for a continuous period of time without being distracted
divided attention
ability to distribute our attention so that two or more activities may be performed simultaneously.
selective attention
choosing and attending to a specific stimulus whilst at the same time excluding other stimuli
top down processing
a perceptual process that starts ‘at the top’ with higher level ‘cognitive processing’ in the brain and then works ‘down’ from the whole to the details
figure ground
Gestalt principle of visual perception, that involves organising visual information by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a ‘figure’, which stands out from the ‘ground’, which is its surroundings
similarity
Gestalt principle of visual perception that involves a tendency to perceive parts of a visual image that have similar features, such as size, shape, texture or colour, as belonging together in a unit, group or ‘whole’
proximity
Gestalt principle of visual perception, that involves a tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group; also called nearness
depth cues
sources of external cues or internal cues that help us perceive how far away objects are and therefore percieve depth
convergence
changes in tension in the eyes involving the brain detecting and interpreting depth. the greater tension in the eyes when the object is close and less tension when the object gets further away
retinal disparity
slight difference in location of the images on the retina due to the eyes being slightly apart
accommodation
the automatic adjustment of the shape on the lens to focus on an object in response to changes in how far away the object is. The lens bulges for close objects and elongates for far objects.
linear perspective
the apparent convergence of actual or imagined parallel lines as they recede into the distance
interposition
occurs when one object partially blocks or covers another, and he partially blocked object is percieved as further away than the object that obscures it
texture gradient
the gradual reduction of the detail that occurs in an object or surface as it recedes into the distance, compared with an object or surface that is close and perceived in fine detail.
relative size
refers to the tendency to visually percieve the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer, and the object that produces the smallest image on the retina as being further away
height in the visual field
refers to the location of objects in our field of vision, whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant than objects located further from the horizon
perceptual set
a temporary readiness to perceive something in accordance with expectations of what it is
what factors affect perceptual set
past experience, motivation, context
visual illusion
misperception of external visual stimuli that occurs as a result of a distortion or mistake when interpreting the stimuli
why do illusions occur?
heuristics, top down processing, depth perception, contrasting and ambiguous sensory imput
