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IB Biology > UNIT 2 - B 3.2 - Transport > Flashcards

UNIT 2 - B 3.2 - Transport Flashcards

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1
Q

What do capillaries receive blood from?

A

arterioles

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2
Q

What are arterioles?

A

the smallest type of arteries

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3
Q

What does an arteriole branch into within body tissues?

A

a capillary bed

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4
Q

What is a capillary bed?

A

a network of capillaries that all receive blood from the same arteriole

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5
Q

What does a single capillary bed drain its blood into?

A

a venule

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6
Q

What is a venule?

A

the smallest type of vein

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7
Q

What happens to the pressure and velocity of blood that enters a capillary bed?

A

much of it is lost

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8
Q

Why do blood cells line up in single file within a capillary bed?

A

because the lumen of each capillary is only large enough to accommodate one cell at a time

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9
Q

What is each capillary composed of?

A

a single-cell thickness of inner tissue and a single-cell thickness of outer tissue

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10
Q

What are the layers of capillaries permeable to?

A

many different substances

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11
Q

Why is no cell in the body far from a capillary?

A

because the total surface area and extensive branching of capillary beds is high

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12
Q

What is highly vascular tissue?

A

metabolically active tissues in the body that are expecially enriched with capillary beds

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13
Q

What are capillaries that are said to be fenestrated?

A

capillary beds that are designed to be more permeable to substances than a typical capillary

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14
Q

What makes certain capillaries fenestrated?

A

they have fenestrations which are small slits/openings

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15
Q

What do fenestrations do in capillaries?

A

they allow relatively large molecules to enter/exit the blood and allow increased movement of all molecules in a given period of time

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16
Q

How are capillaries adapted to their function?

A

having a small inside diameter, being thin walled, being permeable, having a large surface area, having fenestrations (only some)

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17
Q

What is an artery?

A

a vessel which receives blood from the heart and takes it to a capillary bed

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18
Q

What is a vein?

A

a vessel that receives blood from a capillary bed and takes it back to the heart

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19
Q

what is the reason for arteries being lined with a thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres?

A

becasue they receive blood directly from the heart and the blood is under relatively high pressure

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20
Q

How do lumens of arteries compare to lumens of veins in size?

A

they are relatively small

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21
Q

How much pressure does the blood which veins receive from capillary beds have?

A

low amount

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22
Q

What is the reason for veins being thin walled and having large lumen?

A

because they carry slow-moving blood

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23
Q

What happens when the heart contracts?

A

a surge of blood enters an artery and its branches

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24
Q

Which kind of muscle do arteries have a thick lyer of?

A

smooth muscle

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25
Q

What is the smooth muscle on arteries controlled by?

A

the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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26
Q

What kind of functions does the ANS control?

A

functions that are necessary but not controlled consciously

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27
Q

What does the smooth muscle do to the arteries to help regulate blood pressure?

A

it changes the lumen diameter of the arteries

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28
Q

In addition to smooth muscle, what does the wall of each artery contain?

A

the protein elastin and collagen

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29
Q

What permits arteries to withstand the high blood pressure of each blood surge and keep blood moving continuously?

A

The muscular and elastic tissues

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30
Q

What happens with the elastin and collgen fibres when blood is pumped into an artery?

A

they are stretched

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31
Q

What does the elastin and collagen fibres being stretched allow?

A

the artery to accommodate the increased pressure

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32
Q

What happens after the blood surge has passed?

A

the elastic fibres recoil and provide further pressure, propelling the blood forwards within the artery

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33
Q

What is your pulse/heart rate?

A

a measurement of the number of times your heart beats in a minute

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34
Q

What are the two possible locations where one can measure their heart rate?

A

the carotid artery (neck) or the radial artery (wrist)

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35
Q

How do veins account for the lost pressure and velocity of blood after going through a capillary bed?

A

they have thin walls and a larger internal diameter

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36
Q

What is the unidirectional flow of the relatively slow-moving blood in veins aided by?

A

internal valves that help prevent backflow of blood, and the thin walls of veins are easily compressed by surrounding muscles

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37
Q

what are coronary arteries?

A

the arteries that supply blood to cardiac muscle

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38
Q

What is plaque in the lumen of arteries?

A

a build-up of cholesterol and other substances

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39
Q

what is an occlusion?

A

the restriction in blood flow caused by plaque in coronary arteries

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40
Q

What do plants rely on to bring water and dissolved minerals up from the roots?

A

a tension force generated by transpiration

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41
Q

What does the loss of water by transpiration cause?

A

water to be pulled through the cell walls of nearby xylem tissue by capillary action

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42
Q

What does water being pulled up cell walls of xylem tissue create?

A

tension at the upper end of each xylem tube

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43
Q

What does the tension at the upper end of the xylem tubes result in?

A

water movement up the xylem and the entire column of water moves up because of cohesion

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44
Q

What is the cohesion-tension theory?

A

the upwards movement of water with dissolved minerals in xylem

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45
Q

What lines the dead xylem tubes cell walls for strength?

A

lignin

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46
Q

What does lignin provide for xylem?

A

resistance to collapse

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47
Q

How does lignin provide resistance to collapse?

A

because of the tension created by transpiration

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48
Q

What allows unobstructed water flow upwards in xylem?

A

the partial or total lack of cell walls between adjoining cells of the xylem tubes

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49
Q

What do xylem have that allows the easy flow of water in and out as needed?

A

small pits

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50
Q

What is the function of epidermis tissue in a dicotyledonous stem?

A

prevents water loss and provides protection from microorganisms

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51
Q

What is the function of cortex tissue?

A

sometimes stores food reserves

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52
Q

What is cortex tissue?

A

a layer of unspecialized cells

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53
Q

what is the function of xylem?

A

bring water up from roots

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54
Q

what is the function of phloem in a dicotyledonous stem?

A

transport carbs, usually from leaves to other parts of the plant

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55
Q

What is the function of a vascular bundle in a dicotyledonous stem?

A

contains multiple vessels of both xylem and phloem

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56
Q

What tissues are in dicotyledonous stem and root?

A

epidermis, cortex, xylem, phloem, vascular bundle

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57
Q

What is the function of epidermis tissue in dicotyledonous root?

A

grows root hairs that increase the surface area for water uptake

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58
Q

What are phloem in dicotyledonous root?

A

transport tubes that receive sugars from leaves

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59
Q

What is a vascular bundle in dicotyledonous root?

A

the area in the centre of the root containing xylem and phloem

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60
Q

What is needed in order for cells to chemically exchange substances with blood?

A

a fluid between the cells and blood

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61
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

the fluid between cells and blood

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62
Q

How is tissue fluid constantly renewed?

A

by being released from the side of a capillary bed closest to the arteriole

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63
Q

What is pressure filtration?

A

the release of tissue fluid

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64
Q

What allows tissue fluid to drain back into capillaries?

A

the lower pressure of the capillary bed near the venule

65
Q

Why is the chemical makeup of blood plasma and tissue fluid similar?

A

because of the largely unregulated passage of substances through very porous capillary membranes and gaps under arteriole pressure

66
Q

Why do red blood cells and large proteins not exit the capillaries?

A

because they are too large to exit the capillary walls

67
Q

What is urea?

A

waste production of amino acid metabolism

68
Q

Where is the concentration of potassium ions higher?

A

in cytoplasm compared to tissue fluid

69
Q

Where is the concentration of sodium ions higher?

A

in tissue fluid compared to cytoplasm

70
Q

What are lymphatic capillaries?

A

small tubes which tissue fluid that does not re-enter the venous side of the capillary bed enters

71
Q

How are lymphatic capillaries able to facilitate easy movement of water and solutes?

A

because they are thin-walled and contain gaps between adjoining cells

72
Q

What is lymph?

A

fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries

73
Q

What does the collection of tissue fluid in lymph vessels prevent?

A

fluid build-up around body cells

74
Q

How are lymph vessels similar to veins?

A

they also have internal valves to keep fluid moving in one direction, they rely on skeletal muscle contractions to squeeze the vessels and they join together into larger and larger lymph ducts

75
Q

Where do lymph ducts eventually take lymph fluid back so that it can become part of the blood plasma again?

A

to veins

76
Q

What are the two chambers in fish heart for?

A

one for receiving blood, the other for pumping blood out

77
Q

What happens when the blood is pumped out in fish?

A

it is sent to the gills for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange

78
Q

What happens after the reoxygenated blood is collected from the gill capillaries in fish?

A

it goes to capillary beds in body tissues

79
Q

What happens once the blood is deoxygenated in fish?

A

it gets sent back to the heart to be pumped to the gills

80
Q

What is the limitation of the circulatory pattern in fish?

A

the loss of blood pressure when the blood is within the capillaries of the gills

81
Q

What does a four-chambre heart allow mammals to use?

A

a double circulation pattern

82
Q

What is the pulmonary circulation?

A

blood being pumped to capillaries in the lungs for reoxygenation

83
Q

what is the systemic circulation?

A

blood returning to the heart and being pumped out to capillaries in body tissues to supply oxygen where it is needed

84
Q

What does the additional trip to the heart with the use of double circulation allow?

A

the blood pressure to be restored

85
Q

What does the right side of the mammalian heart do?

A

sends blood to and from the lung capillaries (pulmonary circulation)

86
Q

What does the left side of the mammalian heart do?

A

sends blood to and from body tissues (systemic circulation)

87
Q

What is the advantage of having two circulation routes in a mammalian heart?

A

both lung and body capillaries can receive blood from arteries and arterioles allowing pressure filtration to occur in all capillaries

88
Q

What do the heart’s adaptations ensure?

A

that both atria contract simultaneously, followed by both ventricles contracting simultaneously

89
Q

What do the four heart valves ensure?

A

that there is only a one-way flow of the blood

90
Q

What are some of the heart’s adaptations for efficient blood flow?

A

cardiac muscle, a pacemaker, atria, ventricles, atrioventricular valves, semilunar valves, septum, coronary vessel

91
Q

What is cardiac muscle?

A

a highly vascular tissue making up the heart muscle

92
Q

Where is cardiac muscle especially thick?

A

in the ventricles of the heart

93
Q

Why is the cardiac muscle making up the wall of the left ventricle the thickest?

A

because it pumps bloot out to locations in the whole body

94
Q

What is a pacemaker also known as?

A

the sinoatrial node/SA node

95
Q

What does the sinoatrial node do?

A

its an area of specialized cells in the right atrium that generates a spontaneous electrical impulse to start each heartbeat

96
Q

What are atria?

A

thin muscular chambers of the heart

97
Q

What are atria designed to do?

A

receive low pressure blood from capillaries of the lungs or body tissues by large veins entering the heart

98
Q

Where do atria send blood to?

A

the ventricles

99
Q

What are ventricles?

A

thick muscular chambers

100
Q

What do ventricles do?

A

pump blood out under pressure to the lungs or body tissues

101
Q

Where are atrioventricular valves located?

A

between the atria and ventricles

102
Q

What do atrioventricular valves do?

A

close each heart cycle to prevent any backflow of blood into the atria

103
Q

What do semilunar valves do?

A

close after the surge of blood into the pulmonary artery or aorta to prevent backflow of blood into ventricles

104
Q

What is the septum?

A

a wall of muscular and fibrous tissue

105
Q

What does the septum do?

A

separates the right side of the heart from the left side

106
Q

What do coronary vessels do?

A

provides oxygenated blood to the heart muscle

107
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

a series of events, referred to as one heartbeat

108
Q

What is the frequency of the cardiac cycle?

A

a person’s heart rate

109
Q

What happens when a chamber of the heart contracts?

A

there is an increase in pressure on the blood within the chamber and the blood leaves the chamber through any available opening

110
Q

What are the events that happen when a chamber of the heart contracts called?

A

systole

111
Q

When is the cardiac muscle of a chamber in the heart relaxed?

A

when the chamber is not undergoing systole

112
Q

What is it called when a chamber of the heart is not undergoing systole?

A

diastole

113
Q

Why could you say that both atria undergo systole at the same time?

A

because both atria contract at the same time

114
Q

When do both ventricles undergo systole simultaneously?

A

only a fraction of a second after atrial systole

115
Q

Where is the SA node located?

A

in the thin muscle wall of the right atrium

116
Q

Although cardiac muscle is capable of spontaneous contractions without stimulation from the nervous system, what can it not control?

A

the timing of the reactions

117
Q

What does the SA node provide to regulate contractions?

A

an electrical stimulation

118
Q

What is your resting heart rate also called?

A

your myogenic

119
Q

What does the action potentials from the SA node result in?

A

the thin-walled atria undergoing systole

120
Q

What group of cells does the SA node action potential also reach?

A

the atrioventricular node/AV node

121
Q

Where is the AV node located?

A

in the right atrium, in the septum between the right and left atria

122
Q

How long does the AV node delay after receiving the impulse from the SA node?

A

about 0.1 seconds

123
Q

What does the AV node do after receiving the impulse and delaying for the 0.1 seconds?

A

sends out its own action potentials that spread out to both ventricles

124
Q

What is there in order to get the action potentials to reach all of the muscle cells in the ventricles efficiently?

A

a system of conducting fibres that begin at the AV node and then travel down the septum between the two ventricles

125
Q

Where do the branches of the conducting fibres spread out into?

A

the thick cardiac muscle tissue of the ventricles

126
Q

What does the reception of the impulse from the conducting fibres result in?

A

both ventricles undergoing systole simultaneously

127
Q

What is an electrocardiogram (ECG)?

A

a graph plotted in real time, with electrical activity from the SA and AV nodes plotted on the y-axis and time on the x-axis

128
Q

What are electrical leads placed in a variety of places on the skin measuring for an ECG?

A

the small voltage given off by the SA and AV nodes of the heart

129
Q

What is every repeating pattern on an ECG a representation of?

A

one cardiac cycle

130
Q

How can roots create a low water potential?

A

by the active transport or diffusion of mineral ions into cells

131
Q

What happens with water after mineral ions are transported into cells of roots?

A

water will follow by osmosis

132
Q

What happens to the mineral ions after entering root cells?

A

they can diffuse or be actively transported across the epidermis and cortex of the root until the minerals reach the xylem tubes in the centre of the root

133
Q

Why will water always follow mineral ions by osmosis?

A

because the presence of mineral ions creates an area of low water potential

134
Q

What is allowed as water always follows mineral ions by osmosis in plants?

A

the water can enter the xylem and can create a positive fluid pressure pushing the column of water upwards

135
Q

What is the fluid of phloem called?

A

sap

136
Q

What is sap rich in?

A

sugars

137
Q

What principle is the direction of sap movement based on?

A

the movement from a source to a sink

138
Q

What is a source in terms of sap movement?

A

a plant organ that is a net producer of sugar, either by photosynthesis or the hydrolysis of stored starch

139
Q

Why are leaves the primary sugar sources?

A

because they are responsable for photosynthesis

140
Q

What is a sink in terms of sap movement?

A

a plant organ that uses or stores sugars

141
Q

What are examples of sugar sinks?

A

roots, buds, stems, seeds and fruits

142
Q

What are the two types of cells of phloem?

A

phloem sieve tubes and companion cells

143
Q

What are individual phloem sieve tube cells connected to one another by to form sieve tube elements?

A

porous sieve plates

144
Q

What do sieve tube elements need to stay alive?

A

the numerous metabolic activities of companion cells

145
Q

Why do sieve tube elements not contain a nucleus and many other cell organelles?

A

because they are designed to be nearly empty

146
Q

Why are sieve tube elements designed to be nearly empty?

A

to serve their function as vessels carrying a fluid

147
Q

What are plasmodesmata?

A

connections between companion cells and sieve tube elements

148
Q

What is the purpose of plasmodesmata?

A

to allow the cytoplasm of the tube cells to be shared and they are the orgin of the proteins and ATP needed by the specialized sieve tube elements

149
Q

Where does sap travel between the two types of phloem cells?

A

through the tube-like area of the sieve tube elements where the plasma membrane and cytoplasm are reduced

150
Q

What is the movement of sap within the sieve tube elements called?

A

translocation

151
Q

Why does translocation occur?

A

because a water pressure is created at the source

152
Q

Where does the water pressure at the source in plants begin?

A

at any portion of the plant that has sugars that need to be transported elsewhere

153
Q

How is sugar transported into sieve tube elements?

A

companion cells in the source actively transport sugar molecules in, and the sugars pass through the plasmodesmata into the sieve tube elements in that area

154
Q

Why does the movement of sugars into an area of sieve tube elements create an area of low water potential?

A

because of the high number of solutes

155
Q

Which area in plants has the higher water potential?

A

the xylem

156
Q

Which area of plants has the lower water potential?

A

phloem

157
Q

What does the influx of water into the sieve tube elements result in?

A

the cell expanding outwards because of the increased pressure

158
Q

Where will water go along the tube?

A

wherever there is the lowest pressure

159
Q

What will be the area with the lowest pressure in plants?

A

wherever sugars are being downloaded out of the sieve tube elements into companion cells and then into an area where the sugar is needed for energy or storage

IB Biology (15 decks)

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