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IB Biology > UNIT 2 - A 2.2 - Cell Structure > Flashcards

UNIT 2 - A 2.2 - Cell Structure Flashcards

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1
Q

What is cytology?

A

the branch of biology that studies all aspects of the cell

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2
Q

how many micrometers are in a millimeter?

A

1000

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3
Q

How many nanometers are in a millimeter?

A

1 000 000

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4
Q

How many nanometers are in a micrometer?

A

1000

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5
Q

what do microscopes need in order to observe cells and especially their subunits?

A

high magnification and resolution

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6
Q

What is magnification ?

A

the increase in an object’s image size compared to its actual size

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7
Q

What is resolution?

A

the minimal distance between two points/objects at which they can still be distinguished as two

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8
Q

What happens when the resolution of a microscope increases?

A

the microscope will reveal greater detail

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9
Q

How do light microscopes form an image?

A

they use light which passes through the specimens

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10
Q

What are stains used for in a light microscope?

A

to improve the visibility of structures

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11
Q

What do electron microscopes (EMs) use to create an image?

A

electrons passing through a specimen

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12
Q

What is the order (from largest to smallest) of cells/subunits?

A

cells, bacteria, viruses, membranes, molecules

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13
Q

What is the field of view/vision?

A

total area visible when looking through a microscope’s ocular/eyepiece

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14
Q

What are the two general types of micrometers?

A

ocular and stage

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15
Q

where is the graticule (ocular micrometer) located?

A

in the eyepiece

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16
Q

How are the units on the graticule calibrated?

A

using a stage micrometer

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17
Q

How can the size of the image being examined under a microscope be determined?

A

By comparing the units of the graticule to the know unit size of the stage micrometer

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18
Q

What is the formula to calculate magnification?

A

measured size of image/actual size of specimen

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19
Q

What benefits do electron microscopes have over light microscopes?

A

Because electrons have much shorter wave lengths, the EM has a 1000x greater resolving power than a light microscope and the ability to magnify objects over 500000x

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20
Q

What are the two general types of EMs?

A

scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM)

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21
Q

How do SEMs work?

A

They use a beam of electrons to scan the surface of a specimen

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22
Q

How do TEMs work?

A

They aim a beam of electrons through a very thin section of specimen which allows its inner structure to be viewed

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23
Q

What are two techniques used when working with an EM?

A

freeze fracture and cryogenic electron microscopy

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24
Q

What is freeze fracture?

A

The process of preparing a sample for observation with an EM, involves rapid freezing of specimen, then breaking the specimen apart

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25
Q

What is enabled with the use of cryogenic electron microscopy?

A

an image to be formed using computers showing the 3D framework of proteins involved with the function of a cell

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26
Q

What are some examples of how our knowledge has been enhanced using cryogenic electron microscopy?

A

virus composition and structure, cell membrane components and their arrangement, cellular protein synthesis, hereditary expression and regulation

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27
Q

What are the cons of electron microscopes?

A

They are expensive, require extensive training to operate, and require non-living specimens

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28
Q

What are two preparation techniques developed recently for the study of cells using light microscopy?

A

fluorescent stains and immunofluorescence

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29
Q

What are fluorescent stains?

A

substances/dyes that combine with specific cellular components

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30
Q

Why are fluorescent stains used?

A

They are accepted by certain parts of the specimen after being exposed to UV light and those parts start to fluoresce and assorted colours are produced, allowing for more detailed visibility

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31
Q

What does immunofluorescence allow?

A

greater visibility of living tissue

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32
Q

How does immunofluorescence work?

A

because it involves antibodies already combined with dyes, specific antibodies combined with unique coloured dyes recognize and combine with target molecules

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33
Q

What is the technique of immunofluorescence often used for?

A

Detecting viral proteins that have infected cells

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34
Q

What is the condenser on a light microscope?

A

Located between the stage and the light source, it has a lens that directs light rays from the light source through the specimen

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35
Q

What is a brightfield microscope?

A

it uses visible light so the specimen is viewed against a light background

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36
Q

What is a darkfield microscope?

A

An opaque lens is used in the condenser which blocks direct light, specimen is viewed against a dark background

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37
Q

What is a phase-contrast microscope?

A

A special condenser is used to show detailed images of a specimen without staining

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38
Q

What structures do all cells contain?

A

DNA as genetic material, cytoplasm composed of mainly water, plasma membrane composed of lipids surrounding the cytoplasm

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39
Q

What is a cell’s means of storing and transferring information?

A

DNA

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40
Q

What allows the production of the exact proteins needed for passing distinctive characteristics from cell-cell and organism-organism?

A

The four different nucleotides making up DNA and their sequences as well as their ability to form big chains

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41
Q

What sort of role do enzymes serve in chemical reactions?

A

Controlling

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42
Q

What controls the production of enzymes?

A

DNA

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43
Q

Where is cytoplasm found?

A

WIthin the boudary of a cell

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44
Q

What is cytosol?

A

Matrix composed mainly of water which is located in cytoplasm

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45
Q

What does cytosol contain?

A

Everything necessary for a cell to conduct its day-to-day activities: includes different carbon compounds, ions and other inorganic molecules

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46
Q

Where do most chemical reactions within a cell take place?

A

Within the cytoplasm

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47
Q

What is the major component of the plasma membrane surrounding a cell?

A

two layers of lipids combined as a bilayer

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48
Q

What does the membrane of a cell control the interactions between?

A

a cell’s contents and the exterior

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49
Q

What do membrane proteins provide?

A

identity properties to the cell

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50
Q

What is the diameter of most prokaryotic cells?

A

less than 1 micrometre

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51
Q

What are two examples of prokaryotic organisms?

A

bacteria and archaea

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52
Q

What are different factors differentiating prokaryotes?

A

nutritional requirements, sources of energy, chemical composition and morphology (shape)

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53
Q

What are the features of a prokaryotic cell?

A

cell wall, plasma membrane, flagella, pili, ribosomes, nucleoid

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54
Q

What does the cell wall of a prokaryotic cell do?

A

protects and maintains shape, keeps bacterial cell from rupturing when water pressure is greater inside than outside

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55
Q

What is the cell wall of a prokaryote made from?

A

peptidoglycan

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56
Q

What is peptidoglycan?

A

a carbohydrate-protein complex

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57
Q

What is the capsule on some prokaryotes?

A

and additional layer of a type of polysaccharide

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58
Q

What does the capsule do?

A

makes it possible for some bacteria to adhere to structures such as teeth, skin, and food

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59
Q

What is one major way to classify bacteria?

A

by their ability to retain a dye called crystal violet

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60
Q

What happens to the cell wall of a “Gram-positive” bacteria when it is exposed to crystal violet?

A

it takes a violet/blue appearance

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61
Q

What’s the difference between “Gram-positive” and “Gram-negative” bacteria?

A

“Gram-negative” bacteria don’t retain crystal violet and don’t appear blue/violet when exposed to the dye

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62
Q

What are two examples of Gram-positive bacteria?

A

Bacillus and Staphylococcus

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63
Q

What are pili?

A

The hair-like growths on the outside of some bacteria cell walls

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64
Q

What are the functions of pili?

A

attatchment and sexual reproduction

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65
Q

What is the pili’s function in sexual reproduction?

A

joining bacterial cells in preparation for the transfer of DNA from one cell to another

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66
Q

What does a prokaryote’s flagella/flagellum do?

A

Allow a cell to move

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67
Q

Where is the flagellum anchored?

A

to the cell wall and plasma membrane

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68
Q

Why are there no specialized areas within the cytoplasm of a prokaryote?

A

Because there are no internal membranes

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69
Q

Where do all cellular processes within a prokaryotic cell occur?

A

Within the cytoplasm

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70
Q

What are the two subunits of making up ribosomes?

A

a protein and ribosomal RNA

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71
Q

What does the nucleoid region of a bacterial cell contain?

A

a single, long, continuous, circular thread of DNA (the bacterial chromosome)

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72
Q

Why are bacterial chromosomes described as naked loops?

A

Because the DNA of a prokaryotic cell is not associated with histones

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73
Q

What is the nucleoid region of a prokaryotic cell involved with?

A

cell control and reproduction

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74
Q

What are plasmids?

A

small, circular, DNA molecules contained in prokaryotes

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75
Q

Though it is not required under normal conditions, what can plasmids help a prokaryotic cell to do?

A

adapt to unusual circumstances

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76
Q

How do prokaryotic cells divide?

A

binary fission

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77
Q

What occurs during the process of binary fission?

A

the DNA is copied, resulting in two daughter chromosomes which become attached to different regions on the plasma membrane and the cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells

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78
Q

What does binary fission include the use of specialized fibres for?

A

lengthening of the cell and the newly produced DNA dividing into parts

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79
Q

What do eukaryotic cells occur in?

A

organisms such as algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals

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80
Q

What are organelles?

A

non-cellular structures that carry out specific functions

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81
Q

What do organelles allow for in eukaryotic cells which is not a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?

A

compartmentalization

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82
Q

What does compartmentalization do?

A

Enables different chemical reactions to be separated and allows chemicals for specific reactions to be isolated which results in increased efficiency

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83
Q

When is compartmentalization especially important?

A

When adjacent chemical reactions are incompatible

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84
Q

Where does cytoplasm occur?

A

inside the plasma membrane and outside the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells

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85
Q

What is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm around the organelles called?

A

Cytosol

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86
Q

What is a cytoskeleton?

A

small fibres and rods within eukaryotic cytoplasm

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87
Q

What does the cytoskeleton create?

A

A complex internal structure

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88
Q

What is the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoplasm?

A

Prokaryotic cytoplasm does not have a cytoskeleton

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89
Q

What is the cytoskeleton made of?

A

protein

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90
Q

What are the functions of the cytoskeleton?

A

maintaining cell shape, anchoring some organelles, helping cellular movements, providing a means for some organelles to move within the cell

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91
Q

Which fibres do cytoskeletons contain?

A

actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

92
Q

How can a eukaryotic cell respond to changes in both internal and external environments?

A

The fibres of the cytoskeleton can rearrange their protein components

93
Q

What are actin filaments also called?

A

microfilaments

94
Q

What do microfilaments function in?

A

cell division and cell movement, especially involving contractions in muscle cells

95
Q

What do intermediate filaments do?

A

reinforce cell shape, anchor some organelles and function as movement paths throught the cell for some organelles

96
Q

Where are intermediate filaments found?

A

Most animal cells

97
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

a network of tubulus/channels extending from the nucleus to the plasma membrane

98
Q

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

To transport materials throughout the inside of the cell

99
Q

What is the main difference between smooth ER and rough ER?

A

smooth ER does not have any ribosomes on its surface, rough ER does

100
Q

What are the functions of smooth ER?

A

production of membrane phospholipids and cellular lipids, production of sex hormones, detoxification of drugs in the liver, storage of calcium ions in muscle cells, transportation of lipid-based compounds, helping the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream when needed

101
Q

What does the rough ER engage in?

A

Protein development and transportation

102
Q

What may the proteins synthesized on the rough ER become?

A

Parts of the membrane, enzymes, or messengers between cells

103
Q

Which type of ER is closer to the nuclear membrane?

A

rough ER

104
Q

Where may ribosomes be found?

A

Free within the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER

105
Q

What are ribosomes always composed of?

A

a type of RNA and protein

106
Q

What do the two subunits of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells equal?

A

70S

107
Q

What do the two subunits of ribosomes in eukaryotic cells equal?

A

80S

108
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

intracellular digestive centres which are vesicles (sacs)

109
Q

What are lysosomes bounded by?

A

a single membrane that contains as many as 40 different enzymes

110
Q

Why do lysosomes fuse with old/damaged organelles?

A

to break them down so that recycling of the components may occur

111
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

a type of endocytosis, a means by which material can enter a cell

112
Q

Why is the interior environment of a functioning lysosome acidic?

A

Because acidic conditions are necessary for enzymes to hydrolyse large molecules

113
Q

What does the golgi apparatus consist of?

A

flattened sacs called cisternae, which are stacked one on top of another

114
Q

What does the golgi apparatus function in?

A

collection, packaging, modification, and distribution of materials synthesized in the cell

115
Q

Where is the cis side of the golgi apparatus?

A

The side close to the rough ER

116
Q

What does the cis side of the golgi apparatus receive?

A

products from the rough ER

117
Q

Where do the products received from the ER to the cis side of the golgi apparatus go?

A

into the cisternae of the golgi apparatus

118
Q

Which side of the golgi apparatus is the discharging side/opposite of the cis side?

A

the trans side

119
Q

What happens after the products from the ER move through the cisternae and to the trans side of the golgi apparatus?

A

vesicles can be seen coming out of the trans side

120
Q

What is one example of a vesicle produced by the golgi apparatus?

A

lysosomes

121
Q

What do vesicles carry?

A

modified materials wherever they are needed inside or outside the cell

122
Q

Where are golgi apparatuses found in particular?

A

in glandular cells such as those in the pancreas

123
Q

What allows mitochondria to have some of their own independence within the cell?

A

they have their own DNA

124
Q

What are the two membranes of mitochondria like?

A

the outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane is folded into cristae

125
Q

What is found inside the inner membrane of mitochondria?

A

a semi-fluid substance called the matrix

126
Q

What lies between the two membranes of mitochondria?

A

the inner membrane space

127
Q

What does the cristae of a mitochondrion provide?

A

a large surface area within which the chemical reactions of the mitochondrion occur

128
Q

What do most mitochondrial reactions involve the production of?

A

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

129
Q

What type of ribosomes are produced and contained within mitochondria?

A

70S ribosomes

130
Q

Which types of cells have large numbers of mitochondria?

A

Cells that have high energy requirements like muscle cells

131
Q

What is the nucleus of eukaryotic cells?

A

an isolated region where DNA resides

132
Q

What is the nuclear envelope?

A

a double membrane bordering the nucleus

133
Q

Why is it important that the nuclear envelope allows compartmentalization of the eukaryotic DNA?

A

Because it provides an area where DNA can conduct its functions without being affected by processes occurring in other parts of the cell

134
Q

Why does the nuclear membrane not result in complete isolation?

A

Because it has pores allowing for communication with the cell’s cytoplasm

135
Q

What does the DNA of eukaryotic cells occur in the form of?

A

chromosomes

136
Q

What do chromosomes carry allowing an organism to survive?

A

all the information necessary for the cell to exist

137
Q

When is the cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin?

A

during the phase when the cell is not in the process of dividing and the chromosomes are not visible structures

138
Q

What is chromatin formed of?

A

stands of DNA and histones

139
Q

What structures are the result of the combination of DNA and histones?

A

nucleosomes

140
Q

What do nucleosomes consist of?

A

a strand of DNA wrapped around 8 histones, with a ninth securing the structure

141
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

a highly coiled structure of many nucleosomes

142
Q

What can’t cells do without a nucleus?

A

reproduce

143
Q

What would a cell that cannot reproduce likely have?

A

increased specialization to carry out certain functions

144
Q

What is an example of a type of cell that does not have nuclei?

A

human red blood cells

145
Q

What are nucleoli?

A

dark areas included in nuclei

146
Q

What type of molecule are manufactured in nucleoli?

A

ribosome molecules

147
Q

What do ribosome molecules do before assembling as ribosomes?

A

they pass through the nuclear envelope

148
Q

Where do chloroplasts occur?

A

only in algae and plant cells

149
Q

How are chloroplasts similar to mitochondria?

A

They contain their own DNA and 70S ribosomes

150
Q

Other than DNA and ribosomes, what do chloroplasts have within their interior?

A

grana, thylakoids and the stroma

151
Q

What is a granum made up of?

A

numerous thylakoids stacked like a pile of coins

152
Q

What are thylakoids?

A

flattened membrane sacs with the components necessary for the absorption of light

153
Q

What is the first step of photosynthesis?

A

the absorption of light

154
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A

a process that converts light energy into chemical energy

155
Q

What is the stroma compared to?

A

they cytoplasm of the cell

156
Q

Where does stroma occur?

A

outside the grana but within the double membrane

157
Q

How is reproduction similar between chloroplasts and mitochondria?

A

they can reproduce independently of the cell

158
Q

Where does centrosome occur?

A

in all eukaryotic cells

159
Q

What does a centrosome in an animal cells consist of?

A

A pair of centrioles, often at right angles to one another

160
Q

What are centrioles involved in the assembly of?

A

microtubules

161
Q

Why are microtubules important to a cell?

A

Because they provide structure, allow movement and they are important for cell division

162
Q

Which cells do not have centrioles?

A

plant and fungal cells

163
Q

Why may centrioles not be necessary for the production of microtubules?

A

Because plants and fungal cells still produce microtubules from their centrosome-like regions

164
Q

Where are centrosomes located?

A

at one end of the cell close to the nucleus

165
Q

What are basal bodies?

A

structures related to the centrosome of eukaryotic cells

166
Q

Why don’t all eukaryotic cells have basal bodies?

A

Because basal bodies are located at the base of cilia and flagella and not all eukaryotic cells have cilia or flagella

167
Q

What are basal bodies thought to direct the assembly of?

A

microtubules within the associated cilia or flagella

168
Q

What appears to produce basal bodies when present?

A

centrioles

169
Q

What are vacuoles?

A

storage organelles

170
Q

What are vacuoles usually formed from?

A

the golgi apparatus

171
Q

What are some examples of substances stored within vacuoles?

A

potential food, metabolic waste, toxins and water

172
Q

What does the vacuole in plant cells allow which provides rigidity to the organism?

A

an uptake of water

173
Q

What is a central vacuole?

A

The large singular vacuole in plants

174
Q

What are the main similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

both have some outside boundary which always involves a plasma membrane, both conduct all the functions of life, DNA is present in both

175
Q

What are the functions of life?

A

metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, homeostasis, nutrition, excretion, and movement

176
Q

What is metabolism?

A

sum of all chemical reactions occuring within an organism

177
Q

What is nutrition?

A

The ability to acquire the energy necessary to maintain life

178
Q

What is growth?

A

Development of an organism

179
Q

What is reproduction?

A

Ability to reproduce offspring

180
Q

What is response to stimuli?

A

the organism adapts as the environment changes

181
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

maintenance of a constant internal environment

182
Q

What is excretion?

A

the ability to release materials not needed/harmful into surrounding environment

183
Q

What is movement?

A

ability to change position

184
Q

How do unicellular organisms maintaine homeostasis?

A

The cell membrane controls movement of materials in and out of cell

185
Q

How do unicellular organims conduct excretion?

A

vacuoles isolate and store waste

186
Q

What allows unicellular organisms to move in response to changes in the environment?

A

cilia and flagella

187
Q

What allows for nutrition in unicellular organisms?

A

Vacuoles carry out digestion

188
Q

What allows energy production in unicellular organisms?

A

mitochondria or areas of enzymes

189
Q

What provides the building blocks for growth and repair?

A

ribosomes

190
Q

What allows multicellular organisms to carry out the functions of life compared to unicellular organisms?

A

They have organs carrying out all the functions of life

191
Q

What are the three types of organisms with eukaryotic cells?

A

plants, animals, and fungi

192
Q

What are believed to be the first eukaryotes to live on land?

A

Fungi

193
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of cell wall?

A

plants= cellulose cell wall
animals= no cell wall
fungi= chitin cell wall

194
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of chloroplasts?

A

plants= present
animals= not present
fungi= not present

195
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of vacuoles?

A

plants= one large vacuole
animals= small and numerous
fungi= small and numerous

196
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of their storage of carbohydrates?

A

plants= stored as starch
animals= stored as glycogen
fungi= stored as glycogen

197
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of cilia and flagella?

A

plants= usually not present
animals= may be present
fungi= may be present

198
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of shape?

A

plants= fixed, angular shape
animals= rounded shape
fungi= varying shape

199
Q

How do the three eukaryotic organisms differ in terms of centrosomes and centrioles?

A

plants= centrosomes present but not centrioles
animals= both present
fungi= centrosomes present but not centrioles

200
Q

What allows some eukaryotic cells carry out special functions?

A

a unique/atypical structure

201
Q

What is hyphae?

A

filaments produced by fungi

202
Q

What does most hyphae consist of?

A

chains sperated by cross-walls that have pores allowing various organelles and cytoplasm to flow from cell to cell

203
Q

What is the result of hyphae that do not have cross-walls?

A

a single mass of cytoplasm (one cell) with more than one nucleus

204
Q

What does phloem sieve tube elements’ specialized functions allow for?

A

transportation within a multicellular plant

205
Q

What is minimal in the cells of phoem slieve tube?

A

nuclei, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, and cytoplasm

206
Q

What is needed for ploem sieve tube cells to stay alive?

A

companion cells

207
Q

What do red blood cells contain a lot of which combines easily with oxygen?

A

haemoglobin

208
Q

What does the shape of red blood cells have a large surface area?

A

for the absorption and release of oxygen

209
Q

Why don’t red blood cells have a nucleus?

A

because it allows them to carry more oxygen

210
Q

How can skeletal muscle have the specialized function of body movement?

A

It has specialized proteins arranged in bands that contract and relax

211
Q

What allows skeletal muscle to have more coordinated protein molecules?

A

There is limited cell membrane, so the shape is large and tubular and the cells also have multiple nuclei

212
Q

What does the long and thin structure, along with branched connections allow nerve cells to do?

A

transmit electrical impulses

213
Q

What are the specializations of sperm cells?

A

many mitochondria, tail allowing for movement, head with a tip producing an enzyme allowing for egg penetration

214
Q

What specializations do the cells in the lungs have to help move mucus and other particles up and out of the airways?

A

they have cilia (little hairs) which work in unison

215
Q

What are the key points of the endosymbiotic theory?

A
  1. 2 billion years ago, large cell with nucleus and able to sexually reproduce engulfed small prokaryote that could produce energy
  2. a mutual beneficial (symbiotic) relationship developed forming one organism
  3. smaller cell went through changes to become a mitochondrion
216
Q

How did the larger cell help the bacteria prokaryote in the endosymbiotic theory?

A

it provided protection and carbon compounds

217
Q

How did the smaller cell end up helping the larger cell (after changes) in the endosymbiotic theory?

A

It provided ATP

218
Q

What evicence supports the endosymbiotic theory involving mitochondria compared to bacteria?

A

roughly same size, and divide by binary fission

219
Q

What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory involving mitochondria compared to prokaryotes?

A

they have their own 70S ribosomes, they have their own DNA which occurs in aw circular ring, inner membrane composition is similar, and RNA present in mitochondrial ribosomes resembles to prokaryote ribosomes

220
Q

What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory with mitochondria by itself?

A

they divide independently of host cell, they produce their own proteins with their 70S ribosomes, and they have two membranes consistant with engulfing process

221
Q

Other than mitochondria, which organelle also provides evidence to the endosymbiotic theory?

A

chloroplasts

222
Q

Other then endosymbiosis, what other process helped the development of the cell?

A

compartmentalization

223
Q

What does compartmentalization result in?

A

specializations within the cell

224
Q

How is the nucleus an example of compartmentalization?

A

it has a protective membrane which enables DNA molecules to function without interference from other reactions in the cytoplasm

225
Q

How is the mitochondrion an example of compartmentalization?

A

it produces the energy necessary for the cell to carry out the functions of life

226
Q

What alters gene expression in the cells of multicellular organisms?

A

differing environments

IB Biology (15 decks)

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