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IB Biology > UNIT 1 - B 1.1 - Carbs and Lipids > Flashcards

UNIT 1 - B 1.1 - Carbs and Lipids Flashcards

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1
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

The smallest forms of carbohydrates

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2
Q

What does the formula for monocaccharides follow?

A

Cn H2n On, n=# carbon atoms

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3
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

two monosaccharides bonded together

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4
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

many monosaccharides bonded together

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5
Q

How do lipids change based off of temperature?

A

They are oils at warmer temperatures and fats at cooler temperatures

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6
Q

What are the monomers of triglyceride lipids?

A

Molecules known as glycerol and fatty acids

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7
Q

What does the identity of a specific lipid depend on?

A

fatty acids

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8
Q

What is one function that both carbohydrates and lipids share?

A

To act as energy storage molecules

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9
Q

What four groups can the majority of molecules within all living organisms be categorized into?

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

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10
Q

How is metabolism carried out?

A

The four categories of molecules interact with each other in a wide variety of ways

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11
Q

Why is life on earth described as “carbon-based”?

A

All the molecules in the four main categories contain carbon

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12
Q

What are three other common elements within the molecules of living organisms?

A

oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus

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13
Q

What are oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus found in?

A

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids

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14
Q

What do oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus often form covalent bonds with?

A

Carbon and eachother

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15
Q

How many covalent bonds can hydrogen make?

A

1

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16
Q

How many covalent bonds can oxygen make?

A

2

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17
Q

How many covalent bonds can nitrogen make?

A

3

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18
Q

How many covalent bonds can phosphorus make?

A

5

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19
Q

How many covalent bonds can carbon make?

A

4

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20
Q

What are four common functional groups?

A

hydroxyl/alcohol (OH), amino/amine (NH2), carboxyl (COOH), phosphate (H2PO4)

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21
Q

What are the three subcategories of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide

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22
Q

What are the three sub categories of lipids?

A

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

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23
Q

What is the sub category of nucleic acids?

A

nucleotides

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24
Q

What are macromolecules made up of?

A

monomers

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25
Q

What do hydrolysis reactions do?

A

break covalent bonds between monomers

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26
Q

What do hydrolysis reactions allow for in digestion?

A

breaking down macromolecules which is what most food ingested is in the form of

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27
Q

What is the monomer of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides

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28
Q

What are the monomers of lipids?

A

glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate groups

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29
Q

What is the monomer of proteins (polypeptides)?

A

amino acids

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30
Q

What is the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

nucleotides

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31
Q

After the ingested macromolecules are broken down, what do the resulting monomers do?

A

They are absorbed into the bloodstream and circulated to body cells

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32
Q

What often happens to monomers after entering cells?

A

They are built up into macromolecules again through the formation of covalent bonds in condensation reactions

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33
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

a water molecules is split into two components and each component is added in and becomes apart of the two new (smaller) molecules

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34
Q

What do both condensation and hydrolysis reactions require?

A

Specific enzymes

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35
Q

How many products are always formed in condensation reactions?

A

2

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36
Q

What is always a reactant in a hydrolysis reaction?

A

water

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37
Q

What is a peptide bond?

A

After a water molecule is formed after a condensation reaction, the location where the hydroxide ion and hydrogen ion were released still contains a pair of electrons that form a new covalent bond - peptide bond is this covalent bond between two amino acids

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38
Q

What are condensation reactions catalysed by?

A

enzymes

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39
Q

Where are foods chemically digested?

A

in the ailmentary canal

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40
Q

what are hydrolysing enzymes?

A

digestive enzymes that accomplish chemical digestion

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41
Q

What happens to water molecules during hydrolysis reactions?

A

They split

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42
Q

What reactions make up a large part of overall metabolism?

A

sum total of condensation reactions and hydrolysis reactions

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43
Q

What is an example of a pentose monosaccharide?

A

ribose

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44
Q

What is the chemical formula for a pentose monosaccharide?

A

C5 H10 O5

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45
Q

What is an example of a hexose monosaccharide?

A

glucose

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46
Q

What is the chemical formula for hexose monosaccharides?

A

C6 H12 O6

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47
Q

What is glucose produced through?

A

photosynthesis

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48
Q

What is glucose used in?

A

Respiration

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49
Q

When glucose is used to make a polysaccharide, what purposes do the polysaccharids have?

A

Structural (ex. cellulose) and energy storage (ex. starch)

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50
Q

When looking at the structure of glucose, which functional group is found 5 times withing the molecule?

A

Alcohol/hydroxyl

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51
Q

Why is glucose a polar molecule?

A

The covalent bond between an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom in glucose is a polar covalent bond

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52
Q

What are the four properties of glucose molecules?

A

molecular stability, high solubility in water, easily transportable, yields a great deal of chemical energy when covalent bonds are broken

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53
Q

What allows glucose molecules to have molecular stability?

A

Bonds within glucose are covalent bonds which are stable

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54
Q

Why is glucose highly soluble in water?

A

glucose is polar and dissolves readily in a polar solvent (water)

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55
Q

How is glucose easily able to circulate in blood and fluids between cells?

A

Because of its solubility in water

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56
Q

How do we know that glucose is a good energy store?

A

Due to the high energy yield in oxidation reactions

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57
Q

In nature, what is glucose in a polymer form often used for?

A

energy storage

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58
Q

What do plants do with the glucose after it is synthesized by photosynthesis?

A

store it as starch molecules

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59
Q

What is starch?

A

A polysaccharide made up of hundreds of glucose monomers

60
Q

How do plants make starch as compact as possible?

A

It uses two different kinds of bonds between glucose molecules: alpha 1-4 linkage and alpha 1-6 linkage

61
Q

What do the numbers of an alpha 1-4 linkage and an alpha 1-6 linkage refer to?

A

the carbon number of the two glucose molecules that are bonded together

62
Q

What is amylose?

A

A type of starch that has an alpha 1-4 linkage

63
Q

What shape does the resulting molecule of hundreds of glucose molecules bonded by 1-4 linkages have?

A

helix shape, but linear

64
Q

What is amylopectin?

A

A type of starch bonded by 1-6 linkages

65
Q

What do 1-6 linkages typically create in the structure of amylopectin?

A

branches

66
Q

Why is starch not readily soluble in water?

A

Because its molecules are very large

67
Q

Why is starch’s low solubility important for plants in particular?

A

They can easily store the starch

68
Q

What is a purpose of condensation reactions in plants?

A

It allows the plant to add more glucose to amylose or amylopectin

69
Q

What do plants do to use their reserves of glucose?

A

Hydrolysis reactions are used to break the glucose molecules away from starch

70
Q

What is glycogen?

A

A polysaccharide made of glucose monomers

71
Q

What is the pattern of the bonds between glucose monomers in glycogen similar to?

A

The 1-6 linkages in amylopectin

72
Q

What is excess glucose stored as in many animals and humans?

A

glycogen

73
Q

Where are glycogen reserves kept inside the human body?

A

Within our liver and muscle tissue

74
Q

What is a primary advantage for organisms storing glucose as a polysaccharide?

A

The macromolecules are not readily soluble in cytoplasm and other fluids, meaning there is no effect on the osmotic balance in living tissues

75
Q

What is the main structural difference between alpha glucose and beta glucose?

A

There is a reversal of H and OH at the right side of each molecule

76
Q

Which form of glucose do starch and glycogen both use?

A

Alpha

77
Q

What uses the beta form of glucose?

A

Cellulose

78
Q

Why is cellulose estimated to be the mose abundant organic molecule on earth?

A

Because it is the primary component of the cell walls of plants

79
Q

In cellulose, what do condensation reactions that bond one beta glucose molecule to the next require?

A

Every second beta glucose molecule to be oriented upside down compared to the glucose it is bonded to

80
Q

What is the result of the structure of cellulose when beta glucose molecules form their 1-4 linkages?

A

A very linear polymer with no branches, similar to a long thin fibre

81
Q

What is formed between parallel fibre-like polymers of beta glucose molecules in cellulose?

A

Hydrogen bonds

82
Q

Why is cellulose stable?

A

Because the hydrogen bonds between the beta glucose polymers help hold the molecules together

83
Q

What is the function of cellulose?

A

To act as a structural molecule in nature

84
Q

What is a lipid + protein?

A

Lipoprotein

85
Q

What is a carbohydrate + lipid?

A

Glycolipid

86
Q

What is a carbohydrate + protein?

A

Glycoprotein

87
Q

What are 5 functions membrane proteins are responsible for?

A
  1. cell to cell chemical communication (cell signalling)
  2. transport of molecules in and out of a cell
  3. cell to cell adhesion
  4. catalysis as a result of enzymes adhering to the inside or outside of the cell membrane
  5. recognition of body cells versus non-body cells for immune system functions
88
Q

What determines a person’s ABO blood type?

A

Glycoproteins on the surface of red blood cells

89
Q

What are antigens?

A

The two glycoproteins, A and B, on the plasma membrane of red blood cells

90
Q

Why are the two glycoproteins, A and B, called antigens?

A

Because their presence can trigger the immune system

91
Q

What will the immune system of someone with blood type AB be triggered by the presence of?

A

Neither A nor B

92
Q

What do people with blood type O have?

A

Neither A nor B

93
Q

What will the immune system of people with blood type O be triggered by the presence of?

A

A or B

94
Q

What will the immune system of people with blood type A or B be triggered by the presence of?

A

The opposite antigen

95
Q

What is the universal donor?

A

Blood type O because they can give to O, A, B, AB (can only receive from O)

96
Q

What is the universal recipient?

A

Blood type AB because they can receive from O, A, B, AB (can only give to AB)

97
Q

What can lipids be categorized as?

A

fats, oils, waxes and steroids

98
Q

What does it mean that lipids contain many areas of hydrocarbons?

A

they have many areas of just hydrogen and carbon

99
Q

What kind of covalent bond is between carbon and hydrogen?

A

non-polar covalent bond

100
Q

What do the non-polar covalent bonds between carbon and hydrogen mean for lipids?

A

They dissolve well in non-polar solvents but not in water

101
Q

What is a solution to the problem of lipid insolubility?

A

To conjugate the lipid with another molecule (ex. glycolipids, lipoproteins)

102
Q

What are triglycerides?

A

Lipids that contain one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules

103
Q

How are lipids formed?

A

From condensation reactions

104
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

When an inorganic phosphate group replaces one of the three fatty acids

105
Q

What does each fatty acid always contain that is involved in the condensation reaction?

A

a terminal carboxyl group

106
Q

How many carbons does glycerol have?

A

3

107
Q

What are the three categories of fatty acids found within lipids?

A

Saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids

108
Q

What are saturated fatty acids?

A

fatty acids that contain single bonds between the carbons

109
Q

Why is the title “saturated fatty acids” what it is?

A

Because the molecule is saturated with hydrogens

110
Q

What is the relative melting point of saturated fatty acids?

A

High

111
Q

What state are saturated fatty acids in at room temperature?

A

solid

112
Q

What are triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids called?

A

“fats”

113
Q

What are fats used for by animals?

A

to store excess energy

114
Q

What are two examples of saturated fats?

A

fats in animal meat and butter

115
Q

What are monounsaturated fatty acids?

A

fatty acids that have one double bond between two of the carbons in the hydrocarbon chain of the molecule

116
Q

How does the melting point of triglycerides containing one or more monounsaturated fatty acids compare to saturated fatty acids?

A

The melting point is lower

117
Q

What state are triglycerides containing one or more monounsaturated fatty acids in?

A

liquid (oil) at room temperature

118
Q

What are polyunsaturated fatty acids?

A

fatty acids that have more than one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain

119
Q

What is the relative melting point of triglycerides composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids?

A

relatively low

120
Q

What state are triglycerides composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids in at room temperature?

A

liquid (oil)

121
Q

What do animals/plants use to store energy in the form of?

A

saturated fatty acids: animals
monounsaturated fatty acids: some animals, many plants
polyunsaturated fatty acids: many plants

122
Q

What is adipose tissue composed of?

A

cells that store fat in the form of triglycerides

123
Q

What determines the quantity of triglycerides stored?

A

the organism’s caloric intake vs. the calories burned

124
Q

When are condensation reactions that form triglycerides most common?

A

When an animal eats foods that have more calories than the organism is using

125
Q

When do stored triglycerides undergo hydrolysis reactions?

A

When sufficient foods are not available for metabolic needs so the triglycerides are used to supply energy

126
Q

What are the products of triglycerides that undergo hydrolysis reactions?

A

glycerol and fatty acids

127
Q

Why are triglycerides useful for long-term energy storage?

A

Because they are insoluble in body fluids so they will not move from their adipose storage sites

128
Q

Per gram of substance, approximately how much more energy do triglycerides provide compared to the energy released by carbohydrates?

A

2x

129
Q

What is the thick adipose tissue on endotherms such as seals and walruses?

A

blubber found between their skin and muscles

130
Q

What are amphipathic molecules?

A

molecules which have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

131
Q

What is an example of an amphipathic molecules?

A

phospholipids

132
Q

Which end of the phospholipid is polar?

A

the end with the phosphate group

133
Q

Which end of the phospholipid is non-polar?

A

the two long hydrocarbon tails

134
Q

How do phospholipids solve the problem of having hydrophobic tails in an aqueous solution?

A

They form a bilayer (double layer)

135
Q

What do the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids do in the bilayer?

A

they extend towards each other to keep away from the aqueous solutions inside and outside the cell

136
Q

Why do the polar phosphate groups arrange themselves on the outside of the bilayer?

A

They are attracted to the aqueous solution

137
Q

What is the bilayer of phospholipids the foundation of?

A

the plasma membrane

138
Q

What are hormones?

A

chemical messenger molecules

139
Q

What are hormones produced by?

A

a variety of glands in the body

140
Q

What do hormones have access to?

A

All body tissues

141
Q

What are steroids made from?

A

the lipid cholesterol

142
Q

What is the fundamental structure of steroids?

A

4 hexagons

143
Q

What are both oestradiol and testosterone produced by?

A

gonadal tissue

144
Q

What are oestradiol and testosterone involved in the development of?

A

primary and secondary sex characteristics

145
Q

Why can oestradiol and testosterone enter their target tissue cells?

A

Because they are soluble through the lipid bilayer of cells, and can directly enter through the plasma and nuclear membrane of the cell

146
Q

What do hormones direct the process of once inside the nucleus of the cell?

A

transcription

IB Biology (13 decks)

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