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Bio 1125 > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 molecules in cell membranes?

A

phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol

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2
Q

What are the characteristics of membranes?

A

dynamic and fluid

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3
Q

In an aqueous solution, what do phospholipids do?

A

arrange themselves with polar heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward

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4
Q

Are phospholipids amphipathic?

A

yes

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5
Q

What are integral membrane proteins?

A

Embedded in the membrane
May have one or more alpha-helices that span the membrane or beta-pleated sheets that span the membrane

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6
Q

What is a peripheral membrane protein?

A

attached to lipid bilayer but doesn’t pass all the way through it

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7
Q

Where are carbohydrates found in the cell membrane?

A

Always found on the exterior surface of cellular membranes

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8
Q

What is a glycoprotein?

A

Protein that has a carbohydrate attached to it

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9
Q

What is a glycolipid?

A

Lipids with carbohydrates attached

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10
Q

What is the purpose of cholesterol?

A

Essential for membrane function and structure

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11
Q

Does the membrane have selective permeability?

A

Yes
Has to pass through the hydrophobic core of the membrane

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12
Q

Can large molecules fit through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

no

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13
Q

Do large, uncharged polar molecules pass through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

no
Glucose and sucrose

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14
Q

Do Small uncharged polar molecules pass through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

no
Glycerol can’t, but water can pass through

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15
Q

Can small nonpolar molecules pass through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

yes
Oxygen gas, carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas

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16
Q

Can small ions pass through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

no
Chlorine, potassium, sodium
Charges prevent them from crossing the hydrophobic core

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17
Q

Does hydrocarbon saturation affect the permeability of membranes?

A

yes

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18
Q

What are the characteristics of Lipid bilayer with short and unsaturated hydrocarbon tails?

A

higher permeability and fluidity
Still excludes anything with a charge

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19
Q

What are the characteristics of Lipid bilayer with long and saturated hydrocarbon tails?

A

Lower permeability and fluidity

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20
Q

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A

membranes are always moving, but the components of the membrane shift around
membrane behaves almost like water

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21
Q

What is the most significant molecule present in the cell membrane?

A

phospholipid bilayer

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22
Q

What are the functions of proteins in the membrane?

A

Transport (Different things get through the membrane through the protein channel)

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23
Q

What do glycolipids do and where are they on the membrane?

A

identifies different cell types
outside (extracellular) side

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24
Q

What are the functions of glycoproteins and where are they on the membrane?

A

identifies different types of cells, receptors on the cell surface, cell-to-cell signaling, viruses use glycoproteins to get into the cell
outside (extracellular) side

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25
Q

What are the characteristics of R-groups that make up alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets? What kinds of bonds are formed between the backbone of nonadjacent amino acids?

A

nonpolar and hydrophobic amino acids
hydrogen bonds

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26
Q

What are the characteristics of cholesterol and what are the functions of cholesterol?

A

hydrocarbon rings, hydrophobic, hydroxyl group on the end of the ring structure
can get into the hydrophobic interior of the membranes, helps keep saturated fatty acid chains separated, creates space in the membrane, is important for membrane fluidity and permeability, helps prevent membranes from freezing at cold temperatures, helps keep unsaturated fatty acid phospholipid molecules stuck together

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27
Q

What does selective permeability do?

A

controls what is allowed in and out of the cell

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28
Q

Do organisms need to maintain homeostasis?

A

yes
Need a certain water and salt balance
Need a pH balance

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29
Q

How does selective permeability maintain homeostasis?

A

by regulating what gets across the membrane

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30
Q

How does water get through the cell membrane?

A

through aquaporin channel

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31
Q

What is passive transport?

A

when substances move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

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32
Q

Does passive transport require the input of energy?

A

no

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33
Q

Is diffusion passive or active transport?

A

passive

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34
Q

Do different substances have different diffusion rates?

A

yes

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35
Q

What affects rate of diffusion?

A

mass of the molecules (higher mass moves slower)
temperature (increased temp=increased motion, decreased temp=decreased motion)

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36
Q

What is facilitated transport?

A

Diffusion across the membrane but with the assistance of another protein

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37
Q

What are the 3 types of proteins in facilitated transport?

A

channel proteins
gated channel proteins
carrier proteins

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38
Q

What are channel proteins?

A

Protein that passes entirely through the plasma membrane

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39
Q

What kind of protein is a channel protein?

A

transmembrane

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40
Q

What is the interior of the channel protein lined by?

A

hydrophilic amino acids

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41
Q

What is the exterior of the channel protein lined by?

A

hydrophobic amino acids

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42
Q

What do channel proteins do?

A

Allows charged, polar, large molecules a way to get through the membrane to move down their concentration gradient

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43
Q

Is the channel protein always open?

A

yes

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44
Q

How many types of molecules do channel proteins let through?

A

1

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45
Q

What are the characteristics of gated channel proteins?

A

Closed and some other substance needs to interact with the channel to open

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46
Q

Where are carrier proteins on the cell membrane?

A

embedded inside

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47
Q

What do carrier proteins do to transport molecules across the membrane?

A

change shape

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48
Q

Where do molecules bind to on the carrier protein and what does the carrier protein do in response?

A

extracellular part
causes carrier to allow that molecule inside and changes shape to deliver the molecule to the interior of the cell

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49
Q

Do carrier proteins transport slower or faster than channel proteins?

A

slower

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50
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane

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51
Q

What is the only thing osmosis transports?

A

water

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52
Q

What is the concentration gradient of water in osmosis?

A

The concentration gradient of water moves from a high concentration of water molecules to a low concentration of free water molecules

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53
Q

What is osmolarity?

A

Total solute concentration

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54
Q

What are characteristics of a solution with low osmolarity?

A

has a greater number of water molecules relative to the number of solute molecules

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55
Q

What are the characteristics of a solution with high osmolarity?

A

has fewer number of water molecules relative to the number of solute molecules

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56
Q

What is an isotonic solution?

A

The osmolarity of the solution in the petri dish has an equal solute concentration to the interior of the red blood cell

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57
Q

Do red blood cells have a net zero loss/gain of water in an isotonic solution?

A

yes, so cells maintain shape and size

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58
Q

What is a hypertonic solution?

A

increased concentration of solute outside of the cell, water wants to diffuse down its concentration gradient

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59
Q

What do cells want to do in hypertonic solutions to equilibrate?

A

Cells want to drive water out of the cell

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60
Q

Is there a net loss or gain of water in a hypertonic solution?

A

net loss, cells shrink

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61
Q

What is a hypotonic solution?

A

distilled water in solution decreasing concentration outside of the cell

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62
Q

Does water want to move in or out of the cell in a hypotonic solution?

A

water wants to move inside of the cell causing cells to expand or burst

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63
Q

What are electrochemical gradients?

A

electrical gradient and concentration gradient

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64
Q

What kinds of proteins and ions are in electrochemical gradients?

A

charged

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65
Q

How do ions move across the cell membrane?

A

through facilitated transport mechanisms

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66
Q

What are proteins labeled as in electrochemical gradients?

A

A

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67
Q

Do proteins move in and out of the cell easily?

A

no

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68
Q

What kind of charge do proteins carry?

A

overall negative charge

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69
Q

What kind of charge does the interior of the membrane have?

A

net negative charge

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70
Q

What kind of charge does the exterior of the membrane have?

A

net positive charge

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71
Q

Do cells have a higher concentration of potassium or sodium ions inside of the cell?

A

Potassium

72
Q

Do cells have a higher concentration of potassium or sodium ions outside of the cell?

A

sodium

73
Q

What is required to move substances across an electrochemical gradients?

A

an input of energy

74
Q

What kind of energy is needed to move substances across an electrochemical gradient?

A

ATP generated through cell’s metabolism

75
Q

What is primary active transport?

A

moves ions across the membrane resulting in a difference of charge across the membrane

76
Q

What is the charge dependent on in primary active transport?

A

ATP

77
Q

What are the 3 kinds of transporter proteins?

A

uniports
symports
antiports

78
Q

What are uniports?

A

carries one molecule or ion

79
Q

What are symports?

A

carries 2 different molecules or ions, both in the same direction

80
Q

What are antiports?

A

carries 2 different molecules or ions, but in different directions

81
Q

What is the sodium potassium pump?

A

moves potassium into the cell, moves sodium outside of the cell

82
Q

What is the ratio of movement for the sodium potassium pump?

A

3 sodium ions out of the cell
2 potassium ions into the cell

83
Q

What side of the cell is the sodium potassium pump open to?

A

cytoplasmic side allowing sodium ions to enter

84
Q

What does ATP hydrolysis do when the ATP molecule attaches to a protein? What does this do to the carrier?

A

takes off one phosphate group of ATP
causes carrier to change shape and release sodium ions to extracellular fluid

85
Q

What happens with the sodium potassium pump when it binds to potassium ions? What does this result in?

A

attached phosphate releases
changes the pump shape
releases potassium ions into the cytoplasm

86
Q

What is the concentration of sodium and potassium ions after ATP hydrolisis?

A

More sodium ions outside of the cell than inside
More potassium ions inside of the cell than outside

87
Q

What are the charges of the sides of the cell after ATP hydrolisis?

A

Inside is slightly more negative than outside, which creates conditions needed for secondary transport

88
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

substances are taking advantage of the electrochemical gradient set up by primary active transport

89
Q

Does secondary active transport require additional energy input to transport molecules across the membrane?

A

no

90
Q

As sodium ion concentration build up outside membrane during secondary active transport, what do the ions do?

A

want to move down the gradient, other substances tag along and move across the membrane with sodium

91
Q

What is glycocalyx?

A

the highly hydrophobic surface of carbohydrates that attracts water to the cell’s surface

92
Q

What is glycocalyx important for?

A

cell identification, self/non-self determination, embryonic development

93
Q

What is the electrogenic pump?

A

a pump that creates a charge imbalance (a sodium-potassium pump)

94
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

condition of “cell eating”
cell takes in large particles

95
Q

What is clathrin?

A

a protein that plays a crucial role in intracellular transport and endocytosis

96
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

cell drinking
takes in molecules the cell needs from extracellular fluid

97
Q

What is potocytosis?

A

brings small molecules into the cell and transports them through the cell for their release on the other side

98
Q

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

A

brings specific substances that are normally in the extracellular fluid into the cell

99
Q

Is diffusion active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

passive
Small-molecular weight material

100
Q

Is osmosis active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

passive
water

101
Q

Is facilitated diffusion active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

passive
Sodium, potassium, calcium, glucose

102
Q

Is primary active transport active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

active
Sodium, potassium, calcium

103
Q

Is secondary active transport active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

active
Amino acids, lactose

104
Q

Is phagocytosis active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

active
Large macromolecules, whole cells, or cellular structures

105
Q

Is pinocytosis and potocytosis active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

active
Small molecules (liquids/water)

106
Q

Is receptor-mediated endocytosis active/passive? What kind of material is transported?

A

active
Large quantities of macromolecules

107
Q

How does cholesterol affect membrane permeability and fluidity?

A

cholesterol’s rings are inserted in the hydrophobic interior of the cell membrane and the polar group sticks out into the cytoplasm. Increases permeability and fluidity at low temperatures (keeps molecules spaces apart and when there is a high percentage of saturated fatty acids), decreases permeability and fluidity at high temperatures because phospholipid molecules are going to be spread apart (cholesterol will fill in gaps between phospholipid molecules and when there is a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids)

108
Q

How does aspirin increase lipid bilayer fluidity and permeability?

A

The hydrophobic part inserts itself into the membrane, and the polar parts extend out of the membrane and increase the space between phospholipids

109
Q

Are proteins required to move substances across the membrane in facilitated diffusion?

A

yes

110
Q

What are the kinds of prokaryote morphologies?

A

cocci (spherical)
bacilli (rod-shaped)
spirilli (spiral-shaped)

111
Q

What are gram-positive bacteria?

A

Plasma membrane internal to peptidoglycan cell wall
When exposed to gram staining, they take up the stain

112
Q

What are gram-negative bacteria?

A

outer membrane with peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between two membranes
When exposed to gram staining, the exclude the stain because of the outer membrane

113
Q

What is gram staining used for?

A

to characterize bacteria to determine what kind of antibiotic can be used to treat a bacterial infection

114
Q

How do prokaryotic cells reproduce?

A

through binary fission

115
Q

What does binary fission do?

A

produces genetic clones

116
Q

What are the steps of binary fission?

A

Genome is copied
Two copies of cellular chromosome
Cell synthesis new cell wall
Cell grows and copies are separated to opposite sides of cytoplasm
Cell forms two new cells

117
Q

What are the gene transfer mechanisms in prokaryotes?

A

transformation
transduction
conjugation

118
Q

What is transformation?

A

Bacterial cells take up DNA from the external environment

119
Q

What is transduction?

A

Bacteriophage injects DNA into the host bacterial cell

120
Q

What is conjugation?

A

DNA is transferred from one prokayote to another through pilus

121
Q

What are pili?

A

short protrusions that allow bacteria to adhere to surfaces

122
Q

What are sexual pili used for in conjugation?

A

used to exchange genetic material

123
Q

What are extremophiles?

A

archaebacteria that grow in extreme conditions
Can grow at very high and low pHs, very high and low-temperature extremes, and very high salt and sugar concentrations

124
Q

Describe the electrochemical gradient inside of the cell

A

more negative charge
negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids
higher concentration of potassium ions inside of the cell

125
Q

Does the sodium-potassium pump allow ions to go against their concentration gradient?

A

yes

126
Q

Describe the movement of sodium ions

A

Sodium ions flow back into the cell along their concentration gradient
Flowing into the cell flowing down their concentration gradient and charge gradient

127
Q

Describe the movement of potassium ions

A

Potassium ions flow back out of the cell against their charge gradient
Concentration gradient favours potassium ions moving out
Potassium concentration is higher in the cell, so they want to move down their gradient by going to a lower concentration of potassium ions outside of the cell
Moving against their charge gradient

128
Q

What is an enterocyte and how does secondary active transport occur in it?

A

potassium moves into the intestinal lumin (generates high concentration of potassium ions)
Sodium moves out of the intestinal lumen (generates high concentration of sodium ions)
Sodium flows down concentration gradient in a sodium-glucose transporter
Glucose tags along and flows against its gradient
Sodium-glucose transporter is a symporter
There is another transporter that transports glucose into blood vessels

129
Q

What are the components of a typical prokaryotic cell?

A

capsule
flagella
cell wall
plasmid DNA
cytoplasm
ribosomes
doubles-stranded DNA

130
Q

What is the capsule?

A

provides protection for immune recognition and allows cells to adhere to surfaces (bacteria in human mouth adhere to teeth)
made of polysaccharides

131
Q

What does flagella do?

A

allows prokaryotic cell to propel itself

132
Q

What is the cell membrane?

A

phospholipids
transport and energy transduction

133
Q

What does the cell wall do?

A

provides protection and structure
eubacteria cell wall is made of peptidoglycan

134
Q

What is plasmid DNA?

A

extragenomic DNA
small, circular double-stranded DNA
exchanged between bacterial cells
carries genes that resist antibiotics

135
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

gel-like matrix
contains water, enzymes, ions, nutrients, wastes, and gases

136
Q

What do ribosomes do?

A

synthesize proteins

137
Q

What is double-stranded DNA genome contained in?

A

the nucleoid (gram-negative)

138
Q

What are halophiles? How are halophiles used in the energy industry?

A

bacteria that survive in high salt concentrations
produce biofuels with their unique enzymes and ability to ferment matter in saline conditions and can form salt-tolerant bacterial mats

139
Q

Describe the features of Deinococcosu radiodurans and why are scientists so interested in this organism?

A

polextremophile
tolerates high doses of ionizing radiation
reconstructs its genome through DNA mechanisms
survives in dust

140
Q

Do prokaryotes lack internal membranes?

A

yes

141
Q

What is the genome for prokaryotes?

A

Double-stranded DNA with a single, circular chromosome

142
Q

What are the 2 domains of prokaryotes?

A

eubacteria and archaebacteria

143
Q

What is unique about eubacteria?

A

cell wall made of peptidoglycan
gram positive or gram negative

144
Q

How do eukaryotic cells divide?

A

through mitosis or meiosis

145
Q

What are the characteristics of archaebacteria cell walls?

A

carbohydrates
more rigid (extremophiles in cold environments)
less rigid (warm environments)

146
Q

What is unique about the eubacteria cell wall?

A

peptidoglycan

147
Q

What are characteristics of eubacteria cell membranes?

A

lipid bilayers with unbranched fatty acids

148
Q

What are the characteristics of archaebacteria cell membranes?

A

Lipid monolayer
(Phospholipid tails are connected)
Branched fatty acid tails coming off of the tails
(Makes for a stronger membrane)

149
Q

What are the limits of small cell?

A

more surface area per volume

150
Q

What are the limits to large cell?

A

less surface area per volume

151
Q

Why must cells have enough surface area?

A

to be able to obtain oxygen and nutrients and get rid of carbon dioxide and other waste products

152
Q

Are eukaryotic cells compartmentalized?

A

yes

153
Q

What does compartmentalization allow for in cells?

A

greater regulation over time and more efficient chemical reactions

154
Q

Do plants have cholesterol?

A

no

155
Q

What are the functions of cytoplasm?

A

cellular architecture, metabolic reactions

156
Q

What are characteristics of the nucleus?

A

stores and organizes genetic information
Highly organized and compartmentalized
Membrane-bound organelle

157
Q

What is nuclear lamina in the nucleus?

A

meshwork of filaments that regulate nuclear structure and gene expression
Helps nucleus have its proper architecture and regulating what goes on in and out of the nucleus

158
Q

What does the nuclear pore complex allow for in the nucleus?

A

allows regulated exchange between the nucleus and cytoplasm

159
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

region within the nucleus where ribosomal RNAs are synthesized

160
Q

What is chromatin?

A

DNA complexed with histone proteins

161
Q

What is the nucleosome?

A

wrapped around core proteins, forming chromatin

162
Q

What are ribosomes and their function?

A

complex of rRNA and protein
Cellular machinery used to synthesize proteins

163
Q

What are mitochondrion?

A

membrane-bound organelles
Generates most of the chemical energy needed by all of the cellular biochemical reactions
Location of the synthesis of chemical energy in the cell

164
Q

What is the peroxisome and its function?

A

membrane-bound organelles where oxidative reactions occur
Important in metabolic reactions
Contains enzymes involved in oxidation reactions, which produce hydrogen peroxide
Helps detoxify substances
Breaks down fatty acids and amino acids

165
Q

What is the vacuole?

A

structural support, storage, waste disposal, protection
A single vacuole in a plant cell can take up most of the space in the cell

166
Q

What do all eukaryotic cells have?

A

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, vacuoles

167
Q

What do all animal cells have?

A

Centrosome (MTOC with centrioles), lysosomes

168
Q

What do all plant cells have?

A

cell wall chloroplast, large central vacuole, some plant cells may contain centrosome and lysosomes

169
Q

What do centrosomes form?

A

a microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

170
Q

How many centrosomes do cells have?

A

2

171
Q

Does a centrosome divide every time a cell divides?

A

yes

172
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes (acid hydrolase) that break down warn out cell parts, destroy viruses and bacteria, can trigger a cell-death

173
Q

What kind of pumps do lysosomes contain?

A

proton pumps
Pumps H+s into the lysosome and lowers its pH

174
Q

What is the plant cell wall?

A

rigid protective covering composed of cellulose (polysaccharide made of glucose)
Maintains turgor pressure developed by water in the vacuole

175
Q

What are chloroplast?

A

membrane-bound organelle in plant cells
Site of photosynthesis
Synthesis glucose

176
Q

What does the endomembrane system consist of?

A

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and transport vesicles

Bio 1125 (9 decks)

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