Unit 10 (1900-Present) China, Decolonization, Democracy Flashcards
Kuomintang
-Nationalist Party of China
-Led by Sun Yixian
-Pushed for modernization and nationalism
-In 1911, the Revolutionary Alliance (forerunner of the Kuomintang) overthrew the last Qing emperor (had been in power since 1644)
Sun Yixian
-Leader of Kuomintang
-Became president of the new Republic of China in 1912
-Wanted to establish a modern gov based on the Three Principles of the People:
—-Nationalism, people’s rights (democracy), and people’s livelihood (economic security)
-Lacked the authority and military support to secure national unity
-Turned over the presidency to general Yuan Shikai who quickly betrayed the democratic ideals of the revolution (lots of revolts, civil war started after his death in 1916)
Who held the real power when the civil war started?
Provincial warlords/powerful military leaders who ruled the territory they conquered
May Fourth Movement
-Fought WWI, but the Germans’ territory given to Japan instead of China in Treaty of Versailles
-May 4 1919, 3,000 students went to central Beijing (Tiananmen square) to demonstrate
-Spread to other cities, supported by workers, shopkeepers, and professionals
-Sun Yixian and Kuomintang members shared the aims of the movement, but they couldn’t strengthen central rule on their own
—This caused many young Chinese intellectuals to turn against Sun’s belief in Western Democracy in favor of Lenin’s Communism
Mao Zedong
-A founding member of the Chinese Communist Party that started in 1921
-Wanted to bring the revolution to rural areas and peasants instead of the cities (what Lenin had done)
Lenin helps China
-Sun Yixian became disillusioned with the Western democracies who weren’t helping support his gov, so he allied the Kuomintang with the newly formed Communist Party
-Lenin sent military advisors and equipment in 1923 to the Nationalists in return for allowing the Chinese Communists to join the Kuomintang
Jiang Jieshi
-Led the Kuomintang when Sun died in 1925
-Followers were mainly bankers and businesspeople who feared the communist goal of creating a socialist economy
-Promised democracy and political rights, but his gov became less democratic and more corrupt
-Most peasants didn’t think he was improving their lives, so many started supporting the Communists
—-Mao got more peasants to join by giving farmers land
-Initially allied with Communists and fought the warlords with them, but soon they fought
Fighting btwn Nationalists and Communists begin
-April. 1927, Nationalist troops and armed gangs moved into Shanghai, killing Communist leaders and trade union members
-These killings spread to other cities too, nearly wiping out the Communist Party
-When Jiang became pres of the new Nationalist Republic of China, the Soviets did not recognize the new gov bc of the slaughter (Britain and US did)
-These killings started the civil war which lasted until 1949
Civil War
-Mao and other Communists went to the hills of South Central China to “swim in the peasant sea” and recruit them to join his Red Army and train them in guerrilla warfare
-Nationalists attacked the communists but failed to drive them out
The Long March
-1933, Jiang gathered a 700,000 man army and surrounded the communists’ mountain stronghold
-100,000 Communists forces fled and began a 6,000 mile long hazardous journey
-Thousands died from hunger, cold, exposure, and battle wounds as they only kept a step ahead of Jiang’s forces from 1934-1935
-After a year, Mao and the 7or8 thousand surviving Communists settled in caves in NW China and gained new followers
Why was the Civil War suspended?
-In 1931, Japan took advantage of the power struggle in China and invaded Manchuria (NE China)
-In 1937, Japan launched a full on invasion of China with bombings of villages and cities, and destroying farms, killing thousands
-Japan controlled large portion of China by 1938
-This led to a truce btwn Jiang and Mao
-They united to fight the Japanese
China and WWII
-Japan occupied and devastated most of China’s cities and 10-22 mil civilian died, second only to Soviet Union
-Communists (Mao) had a stronghold in NW China, peasants fought with guerrilla warfare against the Japanese
—Peasant support bc they promoted literacy and improved food production
—-By 1945,v Communists controlled much of N China
-Nationalists (Jiang) dominated SW China and were protected from the Japanese by a mountain range
—-Jiang gathered a 2.5 mil men army and US sent $1.5 bil in aid to fight Japan (the money just went to a few corrupt officers though)
—-Rarely actually fought Japan, just saving strength for fighting the Red Army
Civil War Resumes
-Renewed from 1946-1949 after Japan surrendered
-Nationalists had initial advantage bc army was 3x the size and US gave $2 bil in aid
—However, they lacked pop support bc of the collapsing economy (turned ppl to communism)
-By 1949, major cities fell to the Red Army and Jian’s army fled South
End of Civil War
-Mao gained full control of country in 1949 and called it the People’s Republic of China
-Jian g and other Nationalists retreated to Taiwan, called Formosa by westerners
-This result fueled US anti-Communist feelings, which only grew in 1950 when the Chinese and Soviets signed a treaty of friendship
Two Chinas
-Nationalist China on Taiwan
-People’s Republic of China on the mainland
-This split intensified the Cold War bc different powers supported different sides
Superpowers interfere in China
-US helped Jiang Jieshi set up the Republic of China in Taiwan
-Soviets gave financial, military, and technical aid to Communist China
-Chinese and Soveits pledged to come to each other’s defense if either was attacked
-US tried to stop Soviet expansion (eg Korean war)
China expands
-Early reign of Mao, Chinese expanded into Tibet, India, and Southern/Inner Mongolia
-Told Tibet they would have autonomy, but they strengthened their rule, leading the Dalai Lama (Tibet’s religious leader) to flee to India
—-Others also went to India as they welcomed refugees, causing resentment and brief fighting in 1962 btwn India and China
Communists Rule
-The party’s 4.5 mil members were just 1% of the pop
-Like the Soviets, the Chinese Communists set up two parallel organizations: The Communist Party and the national gov (both led by Mao until 1959)
Agricultural socialist reform
-80% of ppl lived in rural areas, but just 10% of them controlled 70% of the land
-The Agrarian Reform Law of 1950 involved Mao seizing the land from these landlords (killed over a million resistors to do so) and dividing it among the peasants
-Made the peasants join collective farms, each with 200-300 households
Industry and business socialist reform
-Private companies brought under gov ownership
-Five year plan that increased coal, cement, steel, and electricity outputs
Great Leap Forward
-Launched in 1958 to expand on success of the Five Year Plan
-Called for even larger collective farms (communes)
—26,000 of them by late 1958
—Each around 25,000 people and 15,000 acres
—Peasants ate, slept, raised children in controlled, communal spaces
—Owned nothing, no incentive to work hard (only the state benefited
-Failed bc of poor planning and inefficient home industries
-Ended in 1961 after crop failures caused a famine that killed 20 mil people
Why did China and Soviets grow apart?
-Each wanted to lead the worldwide communist movement and they faced territorial disputes (they share a huge border)
Mao’s reduced role
-Reduced his gov role after failure of Great Leap Forward and split with the Soviets
-New leaders changed policies, letting farm families have their own homes and sell their own crops and factory workers competing for wage increases and promotions
-Mao said this relaxed system weakened the communist goal of social equality, so he wanted to revive the revolution
—He urged the youth to take action, they formed militia units called the Red Guards
Cultural Revolution
-Red Guards’ uprising to establish a society of peasants and workers where all were equal
-Praised hard manual labor, said intellectual and artistic things were weak
—-Shut down colleges and schools, made intellectuals do hard labor
-Thousands killed or imprisoned for resisting them
-This chaos hurt farm and factory production
-In 1968 even Mao said they must stop and the army was ordered to put them down
-Zhou Enlai, a Chinese Communist party founder, began to restore order
What reforms were supported by communists in China?
-Only economic, not political
Mao Zedong’s legacy
-Tried to transform economy, but lack of modern tech hindered his efforts to increase output
-Eliminated incentives to work hard (commune system)
-Cultural revolution backfired for him, it turned people against radical communism
Zhou Enlai
-Became premier in 1949
-Started a moderate period eventually in the 1970s
-Was worried about China’s isolation, so stated sending signals that he wanted to form ties with the west
-Invited the US table tennis team in 1971, started a new era of relations
-Us reversed policy and endorsed UN membership for the People’s Republic of China
-Nixon met with Mao and Zhou in China. Agreed to start cultural exchanges and some trade
-Established diplomatic relations in 1979 with the US
Deng Xiaoping
-When Mao and Zhou died in 1976, moderates took control of the part and jailed radical leaders of the cultural revolution
-Deng had become the most powerful Chinese leader and was the last of the “old revolutionaries” who had been in control in 1949
-Was a communist, but supported moderate policies and was willing to use capitalist ideas
-Four Modernizations: called for progress in agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology
-Eliminated communes, leased land to farmers who paid rent by delivering a quota of food the gov. the rest, they could sell. Food production increased 50 % from 1978 to 1984
-Allowed private businesses, managers more freedoms, allowed foreign investment and tech
-More income, more buying goods like TVS, stylish clothes, western music, hotels, foreign tourists
Massacre in Tiananmen Square
-Gap btwn rich and poor, party officials profiting form their positions
-Western political ideas of democracy came to China through students studying in the west
-100,000 students met in the square in Beijing and protested for democracy and calling for Deng to resign
-Hunger strike, widespread support
-Martial law declared, 100,000 troops surrounded the city
-Many students left but 5,000 stayed
-Put up the “goddess of democracy” statue
-On June 4, thousands of armed soldiers and tanks stormed the square, killing hundreds and wounding thousands
-Marked the start of a gov campaign to stop protest
-Tried to hide it, but television showed the world the truth about what happened
Jiang Zemin
-Communist general secretary who became pres in 1997 when Deng died
-Had been mayor, was very skilled but didn’t have military experience
-Opposed by generals and some officials who wanted him to move away from Deng’s economic policies
-US pressured him to release political prisomerrs and ensure basic rights for political opponents, he said no
-Went to US for a state visit, US protestors demanded democracy in China, he said no
-Retired along with Premier Zhu Rongji retired in 2002, but remained political leader of the military and led behind the scenes (Hu Jinato technically new president and general secretary)
Hong Kong
-Had been British colony for 155 years
-SE coast of China, thriving business center
-Britain gave it back to China in 1997, China promised to respect their economic system and political liberties for 50 years
-Some feared for loss of freedoms, but others were happy to reconnect with Chinese heritage
-After 4/5 years, mainland china tightened control
China 2000s
-Poverty reduced, maybe because gradual approach to selling off state industries and privatizing the economy
-4th largest economy by 2007 (US, Japan, Germany)
-Wealth gap btwn urban and rural areas, inequality, pollution from rapid industrialization
-People thought best way to prompt political trade with China was engaging with them (normalizing trade, they hosted 2008 olympics in Beijing , etc)
What did the former Palestinian mandate turn into?
Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip
Palestine WWI and WWII
-Pre WWI, part of Ottoman empire
-After WWI, League of Nations made it a British mandate
-After WWII, UN voted to partition it into an Arab state and a Jewish state
—Palestinians rejected it and all Islamic countries voted against it
-May 14 1948, David Ben Gurion (Jewish leader) announced the creation of independent Israel
Conflict after Israel formed
-Egypt ,Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria invaded Israel, defeated in a few months
-Arabs forced out Jews, they went ot ISrael
-Egypt took Gaza Strip, Jordan annexed West Bank and Jerusalem
-600,000 Palestinians fled Israeli areas and settled in refugee camps
Suez Crisis (1856)
-Egypt mad at lack of US and British support for the building of their Aswan Dam
-Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser blocked Israeli shipping and took the Suez canal (previously controlled by British interests)
-British and France helped Israel take the canal and defeat the Egyptians
-US and Soviets pressured them, so they withdrew from Egypt and left them in charge of the canal
Six Day War (1967)
-Nasser and other Arabs (with tanks and aircrafts from soviets) moved in on Israel and closed off the Gulf of Aqaba (their outlet to the Red Sea)
-Israelis struck airfields in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, and Syria and then used ground forces and defeated the Arabs
-Only 800 Israelis died, 15,000 Arabs did
Effect: Israel gets control of Jerusalem, Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, and West Bank
Yom Kippur War (1973)
-Nasser’s successor Egyptian pres Anwar Sadat planned a joint Arab attack on Yom Kippur, catching Israel by surprise
-Recaptured some lost territory and caused a lot of Israeli casualties
-Under prime minister Golda Meir, the Israelis launched a counterattack and got most territory back
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
-Formed in 1964 by Palestinian officials
-Pushed for the formation fo an Arab Palestinian state that would include all of Israel
-Initially had different groups (laborers, teachers, lawyers, etc) but became dominated by guerrilla fighters who called for armed struggle
-Yasir Arafat became chairman in 1969
-Carried out terrorist attacks on Israel
What did Anwar Sadat (egypt) do to find peace?
-Went before the ISraeli parliament (Knesset) and asked to find peace together
-Said in exchange, ISrael would have to recognize Palestinian’s rights and withdraw from territory in Egypt, Jordan, and Syria that they had captured in 1967
Camp David Accords (1978)
-Jimmy Carted invites Sadat and Israeli pm Menachem Begin to camp david (presidential retreat in Maryland) to negotiate
-Egypt recognized Israel as a legit state in exchange for returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt
-Ended 30 years of Egypt Israel hostilities, first Israeli Arab agreement
-Sadat executed eventually for doing this by muslim extremists, but new leader hosni Mubarak worked to maintain peace
Intifada
-Means uprising, done by Palestinians in 1987
-Boycotts, demonstrations, violent attacks, rock throwing, shootings, explosives
Oslo Peace Accords
-Secret 1993 talks in Norway
_Israel agreed to grant Palestinians self rule in the Gaza Strip and West Bank, beginning with Jericho
-Palestinians agreed to end violence and recongize Israel
-Signed by Arafat (PLO leader) and Israel pm Yitzhak Rabin
-Not really kept: Palestine did more terrorist attacks and Jewish right wing extremists killed Rabin
-Next pm Netanyahu didn’t like the peace accords, but still tried to keep them and met with Arafat to discuss partial withdrawal from the west bank
Clinton tries to make peae
-Hosted 15 day meeting at camp david between Ehud Barak (pm in 1999) and Arafat
-Arafat rejected US and Israeli proposals and didn’t offer alternatives
Ariel Sharon
-Political leader who visited Jerusalem’s Temple Mount, a Jewish and Muslim holy site
-The Voice of Palestine (Palestinian Authority’s official radio station) called for Palestinians to protest this visit, riots broke out, second intifada )Al Aqsia intifada launched
Second Intifada
-Started with demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers, rock throwing
-Suicide bombers also used, lots of civilian deaths
-In response, Israeli forces moved into Palestinian refugee camps and went after terrorists hard:
—destroyed buildings they thought they were in, destroyed Palestinian towns and camps, bombed Arafat’s headquarters, trapped him for a few days
First pm of Palestin
-PLO official Mahmoud Abbas
-This was done in 2003
-President Bush brought Ariel Sharon and Abbas together to work on a new peace plan (road map), but violence increased so peace talk stopped
Later developments
-2005- Israel evacuated all settlers and military from Gaza Strip
-2006- Hamas (terrorist group wanting to replace Israel with Islamic state) won control in Palestinian Authority elections
-Israel didn’t. recognize the new Hamas gov, so formal talks were held with Abbas
OPEC
-Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
-Started in 1960 to control oil prices
-OPEC countries increased prices in Yom Kippur War, which created economic problems in US, Europe, and Third World, but helped oil exporters like Libya
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
-Head of Iran, oil exporting country
-Became one of the richest middle eastern economies under him
-Became US ally, they supported Iran to do reforms
-Per capita income increase, better literacy, communications, and affluent middle class
-Peasants still had no land, unemployment among intellectuals, urban middle class faced inflation, housing costs skyrocketed (partially bc of influx of oil seeking foreigners)
-Religious discontent: muslims didn’t agree with the gov’s greed and materialism
Ulama
-Conservatives in Iran
-Opposed gov corruption, ostentation of the shah’s court, and women having voting rights
Sarak
-the shah’s US trained security police who imprisoned and tortured dissidents
Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini
-Leader of opposition of shah
-Exiled, but continued movement and encouraged demonstrations
Shapur Baktiar
-Shah made him pm when he left for medical treatment
-Moderate who allowed Khomeini come back
Islamic Republic
-Replaced the shah’s gov after more unrest
-Dominated by shi’ite ulama and guided by Ayatollah Khomeini
-Strict Islamic law, reign of terror where shah supporters executed
-Kurds and Azerbaijais rebelled at borders
US-Iran conflict
-Held hostages at US embassy in Tehran
-Iran blamed US for the corruption of the shah’s regime
-Demanded the US return shah for trial
-Carter responded by not buying more Iranian oil and freezing their assets in the US
-Eventually freed hostages in return fo rthe release of these assets
Hashemi Rafsanjani
-More tolerant president initially
-New wave of repression: newspapers censored, universities purged of un Islamic stuff, homes raided in search of un Islamic activity
African problems from colonization
-Borders ignoring ethnic boundaries (conflict and lack of national identity)
-one or two cash crops only
-mines and plantations but no factories
-led to unbalanced economies and small middle class, making democracy harder
-Europe disrupted family+ community life in Africa: moved people far from their community to work or mine/plantations and didn’t promote a skilled and literate workforce
Nigeria overview
-Independence from Britain in 1960
-Africa’s most populous country and one of its richest
-Three ethnic groups:
-Hausa-Fulani (mostly Muslim) in the north , Yoruba and Igbo (mostly Christian, mustim, or animist) in the south
• The Youba are a farming people with a tradition of kings and live in the wes
• The Igbo, a farming people with a democratic tradition, live in the east
What did Nigeria do after independence?
Nigeria adoped a federal system where power is shared between state govs and central authority
•set up three states, one for each region/ ethnic group with a political party in each
War with Biafra
-In W region, non Yoruba minorities tried to break away and form own region:
-In 1966, mostly Igbo army officers seized power in Lagos, abolished the regional govs, and declared martial law
-Hausa-Fulani attacked from the north, persecuting and killing Igbo
-Surviving Igbo. fled east and in 1967, the E region seceded from Nigeria, calling itself Biafra
-Nigerian gov went to war to get it back. Biafra surrendered in 1970 after a million Igbo had died (eg starvation)
-Igbo not punished for this
-Gov used federal money to rebuild the Igbo region
Military and civilian rule
-Military governed mainly in 1970s
-Handed it back to civilian rulers in 1979, resoring democracy
-1983, military overthrew gov and started new Hausa-Fulani led military regime
-Eventually held elections in 1993 and popular leader Moshood Abiola won, but officers said results were invalid and put dictator General Sani Abacha in control
—-Banned political activity, jailed dissidents (Ken Savo Wiwa for example, hanged Ogani protestor of oil)
-Eventually, first civilian pres in almost 20 years elected in 1999: Olusegun Obasanjo, reelected in 2003
Olusegun Obasanjo
-Yoruba from SW Nigeria
-Had been jailed for criticizing Nigerian military regims
-Military support bc he was a former general
-Reduced corruption, drew attention to the need for debt relief
-After him came President Umaru Yar’Adua who came to power and faced problems of war, violence, corruption, poverty, pollution, hunger, militant groups threatening oil exports
Apartheid in South Africa
-White minority ruled black majority
-Self rule as dominion of British empire in 1910, independent member of the Commonwealth in 1931
-Had a constitutional gov but it gave whites power and denied black rights
Apartheid
-Segregation policy instituted by the National Party which promoted Afrikaner nationalism (dutch S African)
-Segregated schools, hospital, neighborhoods
-Reserves “homelands” for black groups
-75% of pop but only 13% of land
African National Congress (ANC)
-Formed in 1912 by black people in South Africa
-Strikes, boycotts, etc
-Man members imprisoned like leader Nelson Mandela
-1976 Riots broke out in black township Soweto, 600 students died
-1977 police beat protest leader Stephen Biko to death while in custody
Desmond Tutu
-Black south african bishop who led an economic campaign against apartheid
-Asked other countries to not do business with South Africa
-Many did trade restrictions, banned from olympics, etc
-Won Nobel Peace Prize for his nonviolent methods
F. W. de Klerk
-While South African new pres in 1989
-Goal was to transform the country and end isolation
-1990 legalized ANC, released Mandela from prison
-Started new era, in next 18 months the parliament repealed apartheid laws segregating public facilities and restricting land ownership by blacks
-world lifted trade restrictions of them
-Still legal barriers needed to be addressed
-Held South Africa’s first universal election (everyone voted) in 1994
Mandela elected
-Inkatha Freedom Party (rival to ANC) threatened to disrupt the election, but it went smoothly
-ANC got 63 % of the vote, 252 of 400 National Assembly seats, Mandela president
New constitution in S Africa
-1996 more democratic constitution
-Equal rights for all in a new bill of rights (US inspired)
Thabo Mbeki
-ANC official elected pres in 1999 after Mandela stepped down
-Faced issues like high crime rates, unemployment ,poverty, and decreased foreign investment
-Promoted free market policies to repair infrastructure and encourage foreign investment
-Negotiated to establish trade with EU, Japan, Canada, and US in 2002
-Big problem was AIDS epidemic (6 mil died in S Africa) but Mbeki didn’t believe it was caused by HIV
-Pres Jacob Zuma in 2009 broadened AIDS policy
General causes of colonial independence
-Inspired by India in 1947
-helped mother countries in WWII
-Mother countries unable to provide for colonies after WWII
-War decreased male pop and resources, no longer worth high cost to run the colonies
Causes of colonial independence Africa
-Forced western culture led to African nationalism
-Elite educated in the west, started nationalist groups like ANC
-Colonies helped fight dictatorships in Europe, felt this should end their rule over them
-WWII weakened European powers economically and politically, difficult to rule a colonial empire
Ghana independence
-Nationalist leader Kwame Nkrumah of the Convention People’s Party began to protest British rule of the Gold Coast Colony
-“positive action” movement inspired by Gandhi
-Decade of peaceful protests, strikes, boycotts
-Granted independence in 1957 (first subsaharan country to do so)
-Became Ghana, Nkrumah elected pres
-He supported African socialism and wanted other African colonies to become independent too
Kenya Independence
-Violent and nonviolent means to break from Britain
-Leader Jomo Kenyatta used non bvolence to protest, but jailed for refusing to denounce the armed rebels (Mao Mao) from his ethnic group who used violence to fight for farmland in the mountains
-British fought Mau Mau to protect white farmers who grew coffee in the highlands
-Britain didn’t use guerrilla warfare, eventually gave in
-Kenya granted independence in 1963 Jomo became pres
Effects of Colonialism
-Reliance on cash crops and lack of industry
-Reliance on dictators and military to keep order
-National debt from attempts to modernize
-Civil wars from ethnic conflict
Rwanda
-Belgium took it from Germany after WWII
-Broken into Hutu majority and Tutsi minority
Who did Belgians favor in Rwanda
-Tutsi bc they thought they were taller and more elegant
-Gained land and privileges, ruled over the Hutu for the Belgians
After independence in Rwanda
-Many Tutsi left bc of Hutu violence angainst them
-Exiled Tutsi formed army called the RPF in the 1990s
-Invaded Rwanda, started fighting Hutu Rwandan Army
-Cease fire in 1993, peace treaty called Arusha Accords
-During peace talk Rwandan pres (Juvenal Habyariamana)’s plane shot down, Tutsi blames
-Violence against Tutsi and any sympathizers
-“cut down the tall trees”
-Hutu militias (eg Interhamwe) set up roadblocks, invaded villages, killed 1 mil (many by machete) for three months, 1 in 7 Rwandans killed
-UN and US did little during the genocide, but sent aid along with France and took in refugees after
-By end of 1994, RPF had defeated the Hutu army and RPF leader Paul Kegame became pres
-Truth and reconciliation committee set up- tell the truth in trial and admit to crimes to avoid jail time
Principles of democracy
-Free elections (multiple parties, universal suffrage)
-Citizen participation (need education, economic security, and freedoms like speech, press, and assembly)
-Majority rule, minority rights (everyone equal under the law, shared national identity, individual rights, representatives used)
-Constitutional government (rule by law, no one above the law, acceptance of majority decisions)
What did the UN Development program’s 2002 report say?
-Spread of democracy worldwide would be derailed if free elections in poor countries aren’t followed by economic growth
Issues in Latin America after independence?
-Powerful militaries
-Economies dependent on a single crop
-Large gaps btwn rich and poor
Brazil after independence
-Became a monarchy after independence from Portugal in 1822
-In 1889, established a republican gov controlled by a wealthy elite
-In 1930s, Getulio Vargas became dictator and used political opposition (but also promoted economic growth to help make them a modern industrial nation)
Juscelino Kubitzchek
-One of the elected presidents after Vargas who tried to steer Brazil toward democracy and advance the economy
-Governed from 1956 to 1961
-Encouraged foreign investment to pay for development projects like the new capital city Brasilia
—These projects were expensive, so foreign debt and inflation rose
-His successors proposed reforms to ease social and economic problems, but conservatives resisted, especially land reform
Brazil’s military dictators
-In 1964, with wealthy Brazilians’ help, the army seized power in a military coup
-Military dictators went on to rule for 20 years
-emphasized economic growth: foreign investment, development projects in Amazon jungle, economy boomed
-Downside was that gov froze wages and cut back on social programs, declined the standard of living
-When people protested, they censored, jailed, tortured, and killed them
Brazil’s road to democracy
-Recession hit in 1980s, so the military dictators decided to open up the political system and allow direct elections of officials
-1985: civilian pres Jose Sarney elected. Inherited a country with lots of foreign debt and inflation and he was unable to solve the problems and lost support
-1994+1998: Brazilians elected Fernando Henrique Cardeso who had more success with economic and political problems. He had been trained as a Marxist scholar but became a strong advocate of free markets and worked to reduce the income gap
2002 Brazil election
-Cardeso wanted centrist Jose Serra to win
-Other candidates, like Leftist Worker’s Party candidate Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, proposed breaking away from Cardeso’s pro business policies
-2002 economic crisis, stalled economic growth, unemployment, and poverty caused backlash against free market economic policies led to Da Silva winning
Beginnings of one party rule in Mexico
-1920-1934: Mexico elected several generals as president (not military dictators) who created a ruling party- the National Revolutionary Party- which dominated Mexico under different names for the rest for the 1900s
Lazaro Cardenas
-From 1934-1940, president who tried to improbe life for peasants and workers
-Land reform, promoted labor rights, nationalized the Mexican oil industry
-After him, a series of more conservative presidents turned away from reform
PRI
-In 1946, the main political party changed its name to Institutional Revolutionary Party
-Became the main force for political stability for the next 50 years (very imperfect though)
-Controlled congress and won every presidential election because elections had fraud and corruption
-While they did develop the economy, they lacked land and jobs and had huge foreign debt
1969 protest in Mexico
-In the 1960s, students and workers started calling for change:
-1968 protest at an ancient Aztec market in Mexico city
-Soldiers hid in the ruins and shot protestors, massacring hundreds
What did Mexico’s economy become reliant on?
-By the 1980s, new oil and natural gas reserves were found in Mexico and their economy became dependent on it.
-When oil prices fell in 1981, their revenues halved and the country went into economic decline
Carlos Salinas
-RPI candidate who won the 1988 presidency, but opposition parties won seats in congress which started a gradual opening of political system
-Salinas signed NAFTA which removed trade barriers btwn M, US, and C
Political crises in Mexico
-Peasant rebels in Chiapas (southern Mexican state) staged a major uprising in 1994
-Shortly afterward, a gunman killed Luiz Donaldo Colosio, the PRI candidate for the upcoming election
PRI loses control of Mexico
-Despite the crises, the election of 1994 happened
and PRI replacement candidate Ernesto Zadillo won
-In 1997, two opposition parties each won a lot of congressional seats, stopping the PRI control of it
-In 2000, end of 71 years of PRI rule when Vincente Fox became pres
Vincente Fox
-Center-right candidate who ended 71 years of PRI rule
-Ambitious agenda of reforming the police, stopping political corruption, ending the rebellion in Chiapas, and opening up Mexico’s economy to free-market forces
-Argued that the US should legalize the status of millions of illegal Mexican immigrant workers
—Seemed not likely after 9/11, but in 2002, Fox made a cabinet level agency to lobby for interests of Mexico’s 22 mil citizens abroad (many in US)
Argentina overview
-Major grain and beef exporter
-Industrial with a large working class
-Struggled to establish democracy
Juan Peron
-Army officer who won the election of 1946 for president with workers’ support
-Established a dictatorship
-Ruled with his wife Eva (called Evita by millions who idolized her)
-Created a welfare state that offered social programs with broad appeal but limited freedoms
-When Eva died in 1952, his popularity declined
-His enemies (military and Catholic Church) moved against him and he was ousted in 1955 and driven into exile
-Briefly came back to rule in 1973 but died in office
Repression in Argentina
-Military essentially controlled Argentine politics and by the mid 1970s, they were in chaos
-In 1976, the generals seized power and established a brutal dictatorship and hunted down political opponents
-Torture and murder common and several thousand “disappeared” (kidnapped by the gov)
Developments in Argentine democracy and economy
-Generals stepped down after a defeat by Britain in a war over the Falkland Islands
-1983: elected Raul Alfonsin to pres in the first free election in 37 years
—He worked to rebuild democracy and the economy
-Pres Carlos Menem (1989) who tried to stabilize the currency and privatize industry
-By late 1990s, economic problems intensified as the country lived beyond its means
Crisis grows in Argentina
-2001: International Monetary Fund refuses to provide financial aid to Argentina
-Pres Fernando de la Rua resigned in the face of protests over the economy and was succeeded by Eduardo Duhalde who tried to stabilize the currency and privatize industry
-2002: Argentina had 24% unemployment
-Defaulted on $132 billion in debt (largest in history) and devalued their currency
-2003: Argentina struggled to regain political and economic footing and elected Nestor Kirchner as president
