UNIT 1 - Chapter 1 - The Science of Psychology Flashcards
Psychology is the:
The scientific study of study of behavior and mental processes
When referring to studying of the behavior and mental processes - what is meant by:
1) Behavior processes:
2) Mental processes:
1) Behavior processes - OUTWARD or OVERT actions and REACTIONS
2) Mental processes - INTERNAL or COVERT activity of our minds
APPROXIMATELY how old is the study of psychology?
Approximately 138 years old
When did Wilhelm Wundt (Vill-helm Voont) start looking at the study of psychology?
He looked at it starting in Germany about 1879
What was Wundt’s technique of psychology?
What did he focus on?
Introspection
It was the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities
What was the general thought of Objective Introspection?
It looked at the thought of if something was put into a person’s hand, and then the student was told to explain something to him. The thought was that the student would explain everything in relation to that FEELING. So, the FEELING was what drove the explanation of what the student was talking about.
What were two very important parts of Objective Introspection?
1). It was meant to remind scientists that they were to always remain unbiased (they were to remain OBJECTIVE)
2). This was the FIRST time that ANYONE attempted to bring objectivity and measurement to the concept of psychology
NOTE: THIS is why WUNDT is known as the father of psychology
Edward Titchener
Who was he?
What was his form of psychology?
Titchener was a student of Wundt’s
His theory of psychology was STRUCTURALISM
What was the premise of Structuralism?
While he incorporated some of the Objective Introspection of Wundt’s into it, he expanded his theory, thinking into thinking that experiences could be broken down into two (2) basic elements
1) Thoughts
2) Physical sensations
Structuralism element examples
While looking at Wundt’s example of the rock.
The student would actually be given an object, for example a BLUE object and then asked what their reactions were their reactions to it were.
1) What is blue?
2) Answers may lead to blue is calming, cool, feathers are blue etc.
When did structuralism die out?
In the early 1900’s
No explanation given as to why
Margaret Washburn - Significance
1) She was the first female to ever earn a Ph.D. in psychology
2) . She was Titchener’s only graduate from Cornell in 1894
3) She published a book in 1908 on ANIMAL behavior (“The Animal Mind’)
What was the first college to actually offer classes in Psychology in the 1870’s
Harvard University
William James - Taught at Harvard - What was his theory that he pioneered?
2) What was the focus of it?
3) What was he heavily influenced by?
1) Functionalism
2) He focused on how the mind allowed people to adapt, live, work and play.
3) He was heavily influenced by Darwinism, his premise was if natural selection allowed people to survive when talking about physical traits, then the same could be said about mental as well.
What would an example of Functionalism allowing someone to use that mental “natural selection” to help them to survive?
If someone were to avoid eye contact in an elevator, it could be interpreted as that person protecting their personal space. Them protecting their territory, a primitive need that went back to the need to protect home, land, food and water.
The three Influential Approaches are:
1) Gestalt
2) Psychoanalysis
3) Behaviorism
What does the Gestalt approach look at?
Max Wertheimer (VERT-hi-mer)
Gestalt means: An organized whole, or configuration
- An organized whole -
- Basic concept - The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
- Cannot be broken down into smaller parts
- Perceiving and seeing cannot be broken down into “smaller elements” and still be understood
- Has to remain in tact in order to be understood
- If you take a smartphone apart, it is not going to work (the smaller pieces need to be all together, in order for the phone to work).
Gestalt theories are now part of study and cognitive psychology
What does the word Gestalt mean?
An organized whole or configuration
What does Psychoanalysis look like?
Sigmund Freud - not a psychologist
Freud looked at all of the patients and found that these patients had no physical ailments that could be attributed to their conditions - so he went with looking at the mental side of the patients
- Proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push - or repress - our threatening urges and desires
- Believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders
- Stressed importance of early childhood experiences
What does behaviorism look like?
Pavlov, Watson and Jones
Ivan Pavlov - not a psychologist
John B. Watson - focused on the OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR - Felt that phobias were a TAUGHT or LEARNED behavior (baby was taught to fear a white rat
Mary Cover Jones - Early pioneer in behavior therapy
Pavlov - noticed that by using a metronome while feeding an animal, would cause them to salivate. Then would use the metronome without food with the salivation effect.
Watson - Used the behavior test to see that the phobia was learned
Jones - worked on those theories to see if she could counteract the theories (worked on bringing a rabbit closer and closer each day)
What is the psychodynamic perspective?
- Modern version of psychoanalysis
- More focused on development of a sense of self and discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations
What is the behavioral perspective?
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner developed the theory that it is a learned/conditioned behavior.
A child that cries, gets attention.
Behavioral responses are followed by pleasurable consequences
Behaviorism became a major force in the 20th century
Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism
What is Humanistic Perspective?
Called the “third force” in psychology
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Psychologists in the mid-1900’s were either psychoanalysts, or behaviorists
This (Humanistic Perspective) focuses on people’s ability to direct their own lives
- People have their free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny and strive for self-actualization
Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving and learning
Sociocultural Perspective
Lev Vygotsky
Focuses on relationship between social behavior and culture
He used sociocultural concepts in forming his theory of children’s cognitive development
It reminds people that the way they and others behave (or even think) is influenced not only by whether they are alone, with friends, in a crowd or in group, but also by social norms.
Biopsychological Persopective
Attributes and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones’ and activity of nervous systems
Evolutionary Perspective
- Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share
- Looks at how the mind works and why it works as it does
- Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value
Differences:
- Psychologist
- Psychiatrist
- Psychiatric Social Worker
- No MEDICAL training
Has a DOCTORATE degree
Can work in a multitude of vocational settings - Has MEDICAL training (Degree)
Is a physician who specializes in diagnosis and tx of psychiatric disorders (to include prescription of medications as needed) - Has a Master’s degree in a certain discipline, are trained on environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders (poverty, overcrowding, stress, drug abuse)
Can also be licensed marriage counselors, marriage and family counselors, various areas such as this.
Psychologists
- Professionals with academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology
- may specialize in any one of a large number of areas
Clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and
personality among others - Basic research and applied research
Psychiatrist
Medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and tx of psychological disorders
Psychiatric Social Worker
Social worker with come training in therapy methods who focuses on environmental conditions that can impact mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress and drug abuse
CONCEPT MAP
1 - Psychodynamic
2 - Behavioral
3 - Humanistic
4 - Cognitive1 - Psychodynamic
Based on Freud’s Theory -
Focuses on the role of the unconscious mind its
influences on conscious behavior, early
childhood experiences, development of senses
of self, and other motivations
CONCEPT MAP
1 - Psychodynamic
2 - Behavioral
3 - Humanistic
4 - Cognitive2 - Behavioral
Based on early work of Watson and later B.F.
Skinner
Focuses on how behavioral responses are
learned through classical or operant conditioning
CONCEPT MAP
1 - Psychodynamic
2 - Behavioral
3 - Humanistic
4 - Cognitive3 - Humanistic
Two pioneers are Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow
Focuses on human potential, free will, and
possibility of self-actualization
CONCEPT MAP
1 - Psychodynamic
2 - Behavioral
3 - Humanistic
4 - Cognitive4 - Cognitive
Has roots in Gestalt psychology
Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception,
thought processes, problem solving, language,
and learning
CONCEPT MAP
Modern Perspectives
1 - Sociocultural
2 - Biopsychological
3 - Evolutionary1 - Focuses on the behavior of individuals as the result of the presence (real or imagined) of other individuals, as part of groups, or as part of a larger culture
CONCEPT MAP
Modern Perspectives
1 - Sociocultural
2 - Biopsychological
3 - Evolutionary2 - Focuses on influences of hormones, brain structures and chemicals, diseases, etc.; human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body
CONCEPT MAP
Modern Perspectives
1 - Sociocultural
2 - Biopsychological
3 - Evolutionary3 - Focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics, such as why we lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection, the universality of fear, and why we enjoy things like music and dance
What is the scientific approach?
The system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced
What are the four (4) goals of Psychology?
1 - Description - What is happening?
2 - Explanation - Why is it happening?
3 - Prediction - When will it happen again?
4 - Control - How can it be changed?
What are the five (5) steps in the scientific approach?
1 - Perceive the question
2 - Form a hypothesis
3 - Test the hypothesis
4 - Draw conclusions
5 - Report your results
* Others may replicate study or experiment to see if same results will be obtained to demonstrate reliability (Jones replicated Watson and Pavlov's studies while adding her own style to it back in the early days of psychology)What are the four (4) descriptive methods?
1 - Naturalistic Observation
2 - Laboratory Observation
3 - Case Studies
4 - Surveys
How does Naturalistic Observation work?
Advantage
Disadvantage
- Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment
Advantage - realistic picture of behavior
Disadvantage(s) -
* Observer effect
* Observer bias - this occurs when the person doing the observation has a particular opinion about what he or she expects to see
- This can cause the person to actually only see what they are wanting to or expect to see.
* Each naturalistic setting is unique - observations made at one time, may not hold true at another. This means that there is not going to be IDENTICAL conditions.
Diana Fossey (while researching Gorillas) had to battle poachers who were setting traps in her area of observations (Mowat 1988), which was in the Gorillas naturalistic environment. So, while their being poached was NOT natural, their environment was being encroached on which changed her naturalistic observations changed all of the time.
How does Laboratory Observation work?
Advantage
Disadvantage
Main goal?
- Watching animals or humans in a laboratory setting
Advantage
* Control over environment
* Allows for use of specialized equipment
Disadvantage
* Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior
- Leads to formation of testable hypothesis
How does Case Study method work?
Advantage
Disadvantage
What was a famous case study?
- Study of one individual in great detail
Advantage - tremendous amount of detail
- may also be the only way to get certain kinds of information
Disadvantage - cannot apply to OTHERS
* When you look at the Phineas Gage study below, you cannot assume that if another person had the same issue, the results are going to be the same. There are too many complicating factors person to person
Famous case study - Phineas Gage
* Gage was in an accident, had a large metal rod driven through his head. He survived but experienced major personality and behavioral changes during the time immediately following the accident
How doe Survey Method work?
Advantage
Disadvantage
- Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study
- The intent is to ask a series of questions with the intent to represent a sample population
- Population: entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested in
Advantages - data from large numbers of people
* study covert behaviors
Disadvantages - must ensure representative sample or results are not meaningful
* courtesy bias - people may misrepresent their statements due to a fear of how they will sound (even if they are told that the survey is anonymous)
What are correlations for?
They are for finding relationships between two variables
Correlation - Finding relationships (1 of 3)
1 of 3
Correlation -
- Measure of relationship between two variables
- Variable - anything that can change or vary
- Knowing value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of other variable
- Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r) which represents two (2) things:
- Direction of relationship
- Strength of the relationship
Correlation - Finding relationships (2 of 3)
Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
The closer to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables
- No correlation = 0.0
- Perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00
Correlation - Finding relationships (3 of 3)
Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction
- As one increases, the other increases
- As one decreases, the other decreases
Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction
* as one increases, the other decreases
Correlation does not prove causation
Correlation example:
Researcher wants to know if there is a correlation between smoking and life expectancy (the number of years can be expected to live)
How would the correlation be conducted?
(NOTE: ETHICS must be maintained in a correlation study such as this)
(NOTE 2: A researcher does not want or have TIME to conduct a VERY lengthy study)
(NOTE 3: a researcher is not going to hang out with people who are smokers to get the information needed)
So: given the above information - they would take two sets of information from sanitized information. They will put this information into a mathematical formula to produce the correlation coefficient. This represents 1) the direction of the relationships and 2) its strength.
The researcher may look at number of cigarettes smoked and the age at death. They may look at age started, when they died and number of cigarettes and be able to predict life span.
Remember, the closer to 0.00, the weaker the coefficient.
What is an independent variable? (IV)
- variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter
- Example of IV: Violent TV
What is a dependent variable (DV)?
- variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of subjects in the experiment
- Example DV: Aggressive play
What is an experimental group?
- Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable
- Experimental group: watch TV
What is a control group?
- Subjects in an experiment not subjected to the independent variable and who many receive a placebo tx (controls for confounding variables)
- Control group: no TV
What is the importance of randomization?
- Random assignments: process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group
- Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables
What is the placebo effect?
Phenomenon in which the expectations of participants in a study can influence their behavior
What is the experimenter effect?
Tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence results of the study
What is a single-blind study?
- Subjects do not know whether they are in experimental or control group
- Reduces placebo effect
What is a double-blind study
- Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects are in the experimental of control group
- Reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect
What is a hypothesis?
- Knowing that other people might think one’s success in school is due to athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic test
What is an example of an independent variable
timing of “high threat” question
What is an example of a dependent variable?
test scores
Experimental group
Answered “high threat” question before taking the test
Control group
Answered “high threat” question after taking the test
Results-supported hyposthesis
Those asked the “high threat” question before the intellectual test scored significantly lower on that test
What is an Institutional review board
Groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over each proposed research study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in the study
What are the common ethical guidelines
- Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science
- Participants must be allowed to make informed decision
- Deception must be justified
- Participants may withdraw from study at any time
- Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks
- Investigators must fully debrief participants
- Data must remain confidential
- If study results in undesirable consequences, researcher responsible for detecting/removing/correcting
Rules of Animal Research
- Animal research answers questions we could never investigate with human research
- The focus is on avoiding animal subjects to unnecessary pain or suffering
- Animals are used in approximately 7% of psychological studies
What is critical thinking?
Making reasoned judgements about claims
What are the four basic criteria of critical thinking?
- There are very few “truths” that do not need to be subjected to testing
- All evidence is not equal in quality
- Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that claims to be automatically true
- Critical thinking requires an open mind
In the definition of psychology, the term mental processes refer to
Internal, covert activities
Participants in research early on in psychology’s hx might have been asked to VIEW a chair and DESCRIBE its color, shape and texture and other aspects of their conscious experience. These individuals would have been using a method called
Objective Introspection
Objective Introspection differed from Introspection how?
A person would be holding something (making them use their consciousness), and they would be describing it. So the belief was that was what affected that thought process. Whereas Watson added in color, texture etc. and how that affected the thought process
