Unit 1 Flashcards
How do organisms go from cell to species?
- Cells: mitochondria, cytoplasm, ribosomes, lysosome
- Tissue: groups of cells similar in structure and function (muscle, nervous, connective, epithelial)
- Organs: lungs, heart, liver, small intestines, large intestines
- Organ System: endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, skeletal, digestive, urinary
4 tissue groups and what does each group do?
- muscle tissue - contractions
- nervous tissue - communication
- connective - bind, connect, and support
- epithelial - skin, protects surface
Central Dogma Theory
DNA - RNA - Protein
DNA is replicated and copied to make more DNA. During transcription, DNA is copied to RNA, and during translation, RNA is read to create proteins.
Homeostasis
State of the relative consistency of the state of the environment
Negative Feedback Loop
Stimulus that is received through a sensor or receptor to the control center that releases an effector (high glucose - you get insulin), must have a set point you are maintaining.
Positive Feedback Loop
Stimulus is received through a sensor or receptor to the control center that releases an effector - must have amplification (calf suckles on mom, milk is released for only the length calf is suckling)
Main Functions of Cardiovascular System
- Transportation - nutrients, gases, metabolical waste, communication signals
- Regulation - blood pH, temperature, blood volume
- Protection - blood clotting, immune system
What is blood composed of
- Red blood cells (bottom of vial) - most dense
- Plasma (top of vial) - solute that contains nutrients
- White blood cells (middle of vial) - protective component
Arteries
Move blood away from the heart
Veins
Move blood towards heart
Continuous blood vessels
Most of the capillaries. It is least permeable and moves small things.
Fenestrated Blood Vessels
It has windows (holes) and moves small things rapidly. It is in the kidneys and intestine (screen window)
Sinusoid
Moves giant molecules and is most permeable. It is in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow (chain link fence)
Cardio output equation
-HR x SV (stroke volume) = CO
Things that impact heart rate
Hormones, age, gender, body temp, exercise
Things that impact stroke volume
preload, contractility, afterload
How does blood move through the heart?
right atrium, right ventricle, lung, left atrium, left ventricle, systemic circuit
What ventricle has more muscle and pumps more?
Left ventricle
What causes blood to flow in a single direction
Atrioventricular valves and semi-lumiar valves
What are the two types of cardiomyocytes?
-Contractile Cardiac Myocytes: 99% of cells in the heart that allow it to pump and give it a forced rest period
- Autorhymic cells: 1% of cells in the heart that are the pacemaker of the heart
Capillaries
Very small blood vessels with thin walls
Respiratory acidosis
Blood pH lower than 7.35 and increased blood pCO2
Respiratory alkalosis
Blood pH higher than 7.45 and decreased blood pCO2 (hyperventilation)
What is respiratory rhythms regulated by?
higher brain center (medulla and pons), chemoreceptors (pO2, pH), pulmonary irritant reflexes, stretch receptors
Functions of the respiratory system
Supply O2, remove CO2, remove heat, vocalization, olfaction, acid-base homeostasis.
Pulmonary ventilation
Movement of air in the lung
External Respiration
Gas exchange between lung and blood (external air moving into the system)
Transportation of respiratory gases
Moving gas from from lung to the tissue
Internal respiration
Gas exchange between blood and tissue
Does the upper or lower respiratory system have a conducting zone?
Upper
Alveoli
Gas exchange (very thin, thinner then paper)
Alveolar Type 1 cells
Brown cells
Alveolar Type 2 cells
Green cells that produce surfactant
Macrophage
Purple cells that remove unknown things and the innate immune system
What are the properties of the mammalian respiratory system?
Compliance: the ability of the system to stretch
Elasticity: return to rested state
Surface tension: allows for similar molecules to come together
Surfactant
Detergent like liquid and protein complexes produced by type 2 alveolar cells
What are the mechanics of pulmonary ventilation?
Inspiration: brining air to the lung
Expiration: bringing air out of the lung
Boyles Law
The inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. When pressure increases, volume decreases. (squeezing a ballon)
What does intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul) always equal?
atmospheric pressure (Patm) - 760 mmHg
Is intrapleural pressure (Pip) more or less than intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)?
less
How does expiration work
As volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul) increases. Ppul must equal Patm so air leaves
Tidal volume (normal)
The volume of gas inhaled/exhaled
Inspiratory reserve volume
The volume of air above tidal volume that can be taken in
Expiratory reserve volume
Amount of air that can be exhaled outside of tidal volume
Vital capacity
Amount of exchangeable air
Residual volume
Amount of air that cannot be exchanged
Dead space
Some inspired air never contributes to gas exchange (residual volume)
Total dead space = anatomical dead space + alveolar dead space
Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) equation
Frequency x (TV-dead space) = AVR
Daltons Law
The total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures of all the gases (Patm = 100%, so PO2 = 40% and PN = 60%)
Henerys Law
The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid depends of the solubility of gas, temperature of the fluid, and partial pressure of the gas
How is O2 carried in the blood?
1.5% dissolved in plasma and 98.5% is loosely bonded to Fe of hemoglobin
What happens in carbon dioxide transport?
10% dissolved as CO2 in plasma, 20% carbaminohemoglobin, and 70% bicarbonate
In the chloride shift:
Hydrogen is released for carbonic acid then bicarbonate leaves the erythrocytes (leaving an H+ behind). This maintains ionic balance, and Cl- comes into erythrocytes
Key differences in avian vs mammalian respiratory system
- Avians do not have a diaphragm
-Their lungs are not eleatic - they have air sacs
- A change in volume occurs
- Occurs with inflation and partial deflation of air sacs
How does gas exchange work in avians
1st inspiration, 1st expiration (air doesn’t enter lungs till now), 2nd inspiration, 2nd expiration (air leave body)
What are the two gas laws that assist with external and internal respiration and transportation of gases?
Henrys and Daltons’ law
What can alter the loading and unloading of oxygen (4)
The affinity between oxygen and hemoglobin, lower affinity with acid, decreased affinity with higher temps, decreased affinity with increased 2-3 diphosphoglyceric acid
How is the endocrine system different from the nervous system?
Communicate with hormones and receptors, responds in seconds to days, carried through blood and lymph, regulates metabolic activities
What is a hormone?
Chemicals that are carried through the blood or lymph to distinct target tissues and recognized by specific high-affinity receptors on target cells
What are the two hydrophilic hormones?
peptide (oxytocin and human growth hormone) and amino acid hormones (norepinephrine)
What is the hydrophobic hormone?
Steroid hormone (testosterone and progesterone)
What does target cell activation depend on?
Relative number of receptors, affinity of receptor and hormone, blood levels of hormones
Humoral stimuli
Changing levels of Ions and nutrients
Neural stimuli
Nerve fibers stimulate a hormone release
Hormonal stimuli
Hormones stimulate the release/suppression of other hormones
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
stimulates secretion from the thyroid gland
- inhibited by the thyroid gland
- inhibits TRH
- Negative feedback loop
- Anterior pituitary
LH/FSH
control ovulation/the menstrual cycle in women and sperm production in men
- secreted by GnRH
- PFL
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
stimulates secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex
- short term stress response
- secreted by corticotrophin releasing hormone
- produces glucorticoids and mineral corticoids
- Produced in the kidneys
- NFL
Prolactin (PL)
milk production by anterior pituitary
- stimulation of the mammary gland
- can be inhibited by dopamine
- inhibits GnRH
- NFL
Growth Hormone (GH)
regulates the growth of the body
- Produced by GnRH and hypothalamus
- inhibits GnRH
- directly raises blood glucose levels
- NFL
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- stimulated water reabsorption in the kidney
- regulated based on water and water pressure
- stimulate vasoconstriction in blood vessels (narrowing, blood volume and pressure)
- NFL
Thyroid hormone
- increases metabolic rate and heat production (burns energy)
Plays a role in: - maintenance of blood pressure
- regulates tissue growth
- development of skeletal + nervous systems
- reproductive capacity
2 types of thyroid hormones
T4 (thyroxine)and T3 (triiodothyroninnne)
Endocrine pancreas cells
- Alpha cells: make glucagon
- Beta cells: make insulin
- Delta cells: make somatostatin
Adrenal glands release what 2 things?
epinephrine, norepinephrine
ACTH is a ___ releasing hormone that deals with ____.
corticotropin, stress
LH/FSH are ___ stimulating hormones which have a ___ feedback loop.
follicle, positive
TSH interacts with ___ to cause a release of ___ & ____.
thyroids, T3, T4
PRL stimulates ____ production and is a ___ feedback loop.
milk, negative
Oxytocin ___ milk ejection, ___ uterine contractions, and ___ stress.
triggers, stimulates, inhibits
Thyroid hormones increase ____ & _____.
metabolic rate, heat production
Insulin functions in an increase of ___ & ____, and converts ____.
glucose uptake, storage glycogen, glucose to fat
Glucagon targets the ____ and promotes an increase of ___, ___, & _____.
liver, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, release of glucose to blood
Pre-load
Volume of blood the heart can hold without streching
Sinoatrial nodes
Pacemaker, wave of depolarization begins here - L & R atria contract
Atrioventricular nodes
Location/wave of depolarization across atria converges
Atrio-bundle node
Transmit electrical impulses from atrioventricular nodes through the ventricle
Subendocardial conducting node network
Transmit the wave of depolarization from the fibers of the AV bundle into individual contractile cardiomyocytes
The partial pressure of oxygen is higher in the lungs than blood returning from the tissue in:
External respiration
