Understanding Project Life Cycles Flashcards
What is a project life cycle
A life cycle defines the inter-related phases of a project, programme or portfolio and provides a structure for governing the progression of the work.
Linear (Waterfall) Life Cycles
- These are sequenced into a set of distinct phases, from the development of the initial concept to the deployment of an ultimate outcome, output or benefits.
- This approach aims to be highly structured, predictable and stable.
Iterative (Agile) Life Cycle
- Composed of several iterations, which repeat one or more of the phases before proceeding to the next one.
- Iterative approaches can only proceed when user feedback is available to be used as the basis for initiating new cycles of development, refinement and improvement.
- Hybrid life cycles typically fuse together elements to create a new model or approach. E.g. utilising iterative or agile methods for early requirements gathering, where the uncertainty is greatest, and following it up with incremental or sequential processes to formalise deployment.
Other types of life cycle - Incremental
- Where the target state is achieved through a staged series or smaller.
Other types of life cycle - Evolutionary
- Where deployment entails a number of major transitions, each based on user feedback from the preceding.
A typical life cycle might consist of 4 phases as follows:
1- Concept
> This phase develops an initial idea and creates an outline business case and schedule.
> A sponsor is appointed, and, if possible, a project manager.
> Sufficient analysis must be performed to enable senior managers, led by the project sponsor, to make two decisions:
i) is the project likely to be viable?
ii) is it definitely worth investing in the definition phase?
2 - Definition
> The preferred solution is identified and ways of achieving it are refined.
> The project management plan (PMP) is developed.
> This, together with the business case, has to be approved by the sponsor before progressing to the next phase.
3 - Deployment
> Implementation of plans and verification of performance through testing and assurance to realise intended outputs, outcomes, and benefits.
> This phase may be broken down into further stages at the end of which the continuing viability of he project can be reviewed.
4 - Transition
> Handover the outputs to Business As Usual.
> Handover, commissioning and acceptance of outputs to the sponsor and wider users, culminating in formal project closure.
Extended Project Life Cycle and Product Life Cycle
The extended project and product life cycle includes Operational and Termination phase in addition to the phases of product life cycle.
Extended Project Life Cycle and Product Life Cycle - Operations Life Cycle
- This project deliverables are utilised with possible on-going support and maintenance being provided;
- It is also during this phase the a formal review of the realised benefits will be undertaken.
- Key actions include: > Operation > Maintenance > Benefits realisation > Post-investment reviews > Life extension initiatives > Lessons learned initiatives
Extended Project Life Cycle and Product Life Cycle - Termination Life Cycle
- Project assets are disposed of in an appropriate manner. > Disposal > Environmental assessments > Disbanding of operations team > Lessons learned
Knowledge Management
- The holistic cross-functional discipline and a set of practices concerned with the way organisations create and use knowledge to improve outcomes.
Information Management
- The collection, storage, curation, dissemination, archiving and destruction of documents, images, drawings and other sources of information.
Decision making
- Teams and stakeholders need to make decisions in a timely manner to ensure their tasks are cost-efficient and not holding up the project duration.
- Ill-informed decisions lead to mistakes or do-overs.
- Project professionals need reliable information to ensure their evidence and quality assurance is accurate.
- Project audits ensure all decisions are based on consistent evidence and can also gather information to inform decision gates.
Reviews
- Can be triggered by events e.g. the delivery of a product or completion of a stage of by the passage of time for e.g. quarterly or six-monthly reviews.
- The frequency, conduct, and scheduling of reviews is set out in the quality management plan.
Benefits of Conduction Reviews
- Project reviews are necessary for a variety of reasons.
- Benefit of a formal examination of a project’s health might include:
> Better decision-making
>Objective review of a project’s health
> Improved governance of projects
> Sharing of lessons learned (and the subsequent improvement of technical and management processes)
>More timely implementation of corrective action
> Increased stakeholder confidence (including senior management, project funders and customers)
> Increased likelihood of project success (this include achievement of the agreed success criteria and realisation of benefits)
Reasons for Early Closure
- Planned objectives are unachievable; the project cannot fulfil its purpose
- No longer viable business case
- When the cost of time and resources exceeds the benefit of the outcomes i.e. no longer evidence to support sufficient value
- Wider organisational objectives take priority
- Early closure should be seen as a positive and proactive decision, rather than a failure.
Differences Between Project and Business As Usual (BAU)
- All projects are unique where as BAU needs to be repeatable
- Projects are temporary but BAU is on-going
- Projects implement change and are set up in response to BAU identifying the need for change
- Projects deliver outputs and BAU uses those outputs to generate outcomes and to release benefits
- Projects by their temporary and uncertain nature need to manage risk whereas BAU can often be risk averse.
Programme
- A unique, transient, strategic endeavour undertaken to deliver beneficial change incorporating a group of related projects and business as usual activities.
Project Management
- It is the coordinated management of related projects and business as usual activities to achieve beneficial change.
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - SCOPE
PROJECT - have a narrow scope with specific deliverables
PROGRAMME - have a wide scope that may have to change to meet the benefit expectations of the organisation
PORTFOLIO - have a business scope that changes with the strategic goals of the organisation
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - CHANGE
PROJECT - project manager tries to keep change to a minimum
PROGRAMME - programme managers have to expect change and even embrace it
PORTFOLIO - portfolio managers continually monitor changes in the broad environment
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - SUCCESS
PROJECT - measured by budget, on time and products delivered to specification
PROGRAMME - measured in terms of Return on Investment (ROI), new capabilities and benefit delivery
PORTFOLIO - measured in terms of aggregate performance of portfolio components and achievements of strategic objectives
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - LEADERTESHIP
PROJECT - leadership style focuses on task delivery and direction in order to meet the success criteria
PROGRAMME - leadership style focuses on managing relationships and conflict resolution. Programme managers need to facilitate and manage the political aspects of stakeholder management
PORTFOLIO - leadership style focuses on adding value to portfolio decision making
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - TEAM
PROJECT - project managers manage technicians, specialists etc
PROGRAMME - programme managers are leaders providing leadership and vision
PORTFOLIO - portfolio managers are leaders providing insights and synthesis
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - APPROACH
PROJECT - project managers are tea players who motivate using their knowledge and skills
PROGRAMME - programme managers are leaders providing leadership and vision
PORTFOLIO - portfolio managers are leaders providing insight and synthesis
Differences between Projects, Programmes and Portfolios - PLANNING
PROJECT - project managers conduct detailed planning to manage the delivery of the project products
PROGRAMME - programme managers create high level plans providing guidance to projects where detailed plans are created
PORTFOLIO - portfolio managers create and maintain necessary process and communication relative to the aggregate portfolio
Core programme management processes include: PROJECT CO-ORDINATION
- This requires the identification, initiation, acceleration, deceleration, redefining and terminating of projects within the programme.
- This includes managing the interdependencies between the projects and between the projects business as usual activities.
- A programme will comprise a number of projects that will deliver outputs such as building, a web site, a process or any number of specifiable products.
- These will all be project managed within the traditional constraints of time, scope and cost.
Core programme management processes include: TRANSFORMATION
- Also known as strategic business change
- The outputs of the projects must be used to create outcomes and thus deliver the agreed benefits
- This does not happen automatically and may require changes to working practices, culture or both
- Programmes must encompass business change management and thus may include taking temporary responsibility for some business-as-usual activities
BENEFITS MANAGEMENT:
- Benefits accrue from the effective use of the outputs of the projects
- The purpose of a programme is to deliver these high-level benefits which ultimately help satisfy the strategic objectives of the organisation
- Effective benefits management, which include defining, quantifying, measuring and monitoring, will help ensure that the management of projects and the management of business change are both fit for purpose
STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENET AND COMMINICATIONS:
- Because a programme coordinates projects in order to deliver beneficial changes, it is vital and a key element of the governance of project management that stakeholders relationships are developed and maintained, enabling productive communications with all stakeholders
- This will generate their trust and commitment to the project and aid effective decision making within the organisation
Core programme management processes include: PORTFOLIO
- A portfolio is a collection of projects and/or programmes used to structure and manage investments at an organisational or functional level to optimise strategic benefits or operations efficiency
Tools and techniques used to determine factors which influence and impact projects - PESTLE Analysis
- PESTLE analysis may help to establish influences during the concept stage
POLITICAL - consider internal as well as external politics - why do some stakeholders support your project initiatives and others do not? What are the hidden agendas? What if there is a change in central government or in the senior management of the organisation?
ECONOMIC - consider aspects such as exchange rates, inflation, procurement policies, and procedures; commercial terms and conditions; type of contract; contract payment terms
SOCIOLOGICAL - this includes elements such as stakeholder analysis; consideration of local culture; interaction with normal social order; the project team and the continued motivation of the team
TECHNOLOGICAL - consider the following - does the technology for the solution exist, or does it still have to be developed? Do we have the skill and capability to develop or implement the technology? Can the solution be built, operated and maintained? What are the technical interface requirements?
LEGAL/ REGULARITY - this includes things such as local laws, by-laws and regulations, including consideration of regional, national and international laws applicable to the project delivery
ENVIRONMENTAL - The birds and the bees and the flower and the trees p consider SSSI, heritage sites and aspects such as this. The carbon footprint created by the project’s activities will also be a key consideration
Tools and techniques used to determine factors which influence and impact projects - SWOT ANALYSIS
- SWOT analysis is useful in many instances for encouraging understanding of an organisation’s position.
STRENGTHS:
> These are the elements that make the organisation stand out from the competition
> Knowing the strengths of the organisation enables the project to concentrate on these factors to enhance successful project delivery
WEAKNESSES:
> Understanding the weaknesses of the organisation enables the identification of those areas of the project that need to be outsourced or which will best be accomplished through a joint venture or partnership/ alliancing approach
> Knowing the weaknesses also provides a platform for improvement
OPPORTUNITIES:
- identifying opportunities gives rise to the potential for additional benefits to be realised from the project initiatives
THREATS:
> should be seen as giving rise to opportunity
> can also provide insight into risks to which the project may be exposed
Tools and techniques used to determine factors which influence and impact projects - VUCA
- Represents increasingly vulnerable and unpredictable contexts
- Implies conditions where predication and planning is challenging due to an ability to rely on accuracy
- Embracing and managing uncertainty is key to successful management of projects
- Sources of uncertainty come from every aspect of the project: stakeholders, technology, competitors, legislation, externalities, context, time, internal factors and suppliers
Tools and techniques used to determine factors which influence and impact projects - COMMUNICATION PLAN
- The development of a communication plan as a subsidiary to the project management plan will assist in ensuring that the appropriate information is provided to the appropriate stakeholder at the appropriate time in accordance with information reporting and management policies
- Communication is a two way process, between a sender and receiver and as such the communication plan must account for the needs for both parties
- The development of a project communication management plan should include the consideration of:
> Who needs to receive or send information - this stats with stakeholder identification and analysis of their needs and expectations
> What do they need to send or receive the information - the purpose of communicating the information is important
> When do they need to send or receive information - the frequency of disseminating information and particular deadlines needs to be understood
> What media is best suited for the sending or receiving - consideration of electronic vs hard copy must be undertaken
Communication and Stakeholders
- Methods and effectiveness of communication are based on the knowledge of who needs to know what and when they need to know it
- Communication plans are built upon stakeholder analysis so the right people will know the correct information at the most efficient time
- Too much or too little information in the wrong format or too late to make decisions means communication in the project is not efficient
- Effective communication plans will include ways to receive feedback and measure effectiveness so plans can be adjusted to have the most impact
Communication Considerations
1 - Psychological Factors: people are less receptive if worried about personal problems
2 - Languages and culture: national barriers
3 - Individual linguistic ability: difficult or inappropriate terms or poorly explained/ understood messages
4 - Physiological barriers: personal discomfort, ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties etc
5 - Presentation of information: inappropriate style, content, channel etc
Conflict
- Conflict can be defined as different objectives and attitudes between two or more parties.
- Conflict management is the process of identifying and addressing differences that if left unresolved could affect project objectives
Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Resolution Model
- The project manager should be capable of utilising a number of strategies in order to resolve conflict.
- The most appropriate choice of resolution strategy will depend on a number of situational factors including the level of:
> Assertiveness:
- how important is it for the other party to satisfy their demands
> Co-cooperativeness
- how important is it for the other party to satisfy their demands
Based on these factors the Thomas-Kilmann conflict resolution model describes FIVE strategies for managing conflict:
1 - Collaborate:
> entails both parties working together in order to find a mutually beneficial solution
> requires time and effort on both parts to find a point of agreement from which to build and then moving forward, sometimes with the need for creative solutions
2 - Compete:
> where one party has sufficient power, they might decide to pursue their goals to the exclusion of the other participant.
> This may be pursuing own rights or enforcing a position that has to be maintained (e.g. legislation or company policy)
3 - Accommodate:
> An individual may sacrifice their own goals and accept the wishes or direction mandated by the other side.
> This may be through preferring not to challenge and yielding, being generous or to gain ‘credit’ with the other party
4 - Compromise:
> This approach lies somewhere between competing and accommodating
> Both parties attempt to partially obtain their goals but have to make some sacrifices, thereby falling somewhere short of their ideal solution
5 - Avoid:
> The individual does not attempt to pursue their concerns or those of the other party
> Instead, they may attempt to ‘ignore’ the conflict, skirt around the issue, postpone dealing with it or even withdraw altogether
> This might be a deliberate tactic in certain situations but should be employed with great caution
Negotiation
- Negotiation is a discussion between two or more parties aimed at reaching an agreement
- Negotiation takes place regularly throughout the project and can be formal or informal in nature
- Formal negotiation is typically with suppliers and centres on a contract, while
- Informal negotiation is often used when resolving conflict or to obtain internal resources
- Negotiation is the process of attempting to reach agreements in situations where participants have both common and separate interests.
- It aims to be a path from conflict to co-operation
- Negotiation may involve modifying original positions and should meet the legitimate interests of both parties to the greatest extent possible (win-win), resolve conflicting interests fairly and be durable
- Win-lose solutions are short term and where one party feels unfairly treated can often lead to adversarial (lose-lose) scenario
Negotiation Planning
- Consult with others to fully establish inputs, constraints, relationships and expectations - gather as much relevant information as possible
- Identify interests and issues on both sides - this includes social and cultural differences
- Develop proposals - what does the organisation want?
- Know your BATNA ( Best Alternative to Negotiated Agreement) - fall back plan (if any)
- Think about the balance of power between both parties
- Develop your negotiation strategy
- Organise your team
BATNA and ZOPA
- The ideal outcome of negotiation is both parties are satisfied.
- If the project professional cannot get what they want, they should plan for the Best Alternative to the Negotiate Agreement (BATNA)
- Understanding the BATNA of both parties can help define the Zone of Possible Agreement (ZOPA), or where parties would be happy to compromise
- This can better enable a win-win situation as both parties walk away getting what was possible to achieve
- This is not necessarily getting what you want, as this may have never been the potential outcome
