UK ESSAY PLANS Flashcards

Question

Overview EVALUATE THE VIEW THAT PARLIAMENT HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY EFFECTIVE IN SCRUTINISING THE EXECUTIVE

Answer 1

scrutiny - holding government to account, parliament checking the work of the executive and the prime minister Direction - number of tools, but are less effective if there is a majority, policy in manifesto, retraint of ministers closeness of elections GOOD scrutiny - select committees, secret ballot, PMQ, cross benches, commons rebellions, hung parliaments, confidence in supply and minority governments POOR scrutiny - public bill committees, PMQs, Parliament Acts, financial privelege, Salisbury convention, government whips, big majority, fusion of powers

Answer 2

1) Public Bill Committees are CRAP - examine bills line by line and suggest amendments - scrutiny of legislation is partisan and whipped, committees are stuffed with MPs voting for their party Tend to be of little value, whips can dominate proceedings. 99% of ministerial amendments succeed, whilst no gov success rate is below 1% Isabel Hardman - 'MPs use PBC to write their Christmas Cards' Bill is almost complete - they just tidy, friendly to gov with no expertise Example of dominating whip - 2011 Sarah Wolleston was prevented from NHS bill in PSC with 21 years of experience bc she rebelled Independent think tank Reform found that nearly 8% who are in the PBC are also in the Departmental Committee 0.5 of opposition amendments are accepted Paul Flynn - oppositions influence is to delay 2) Select Committees - gov only take advice with recommendations - they are not binding - gov accept 40% of advice, power to compel witnesses - 2013 Theresa May rejected Head of MI5 interview HOWEVER.... they do scrutinise - Jeremy Hunt appointment as Chair of Health Committee in 2020 raised doubts as he was previously health secretary 2009 Wright Committee Reforms - they are elected by a secret ballot - increased independence, gives voice to back benchers Can really damage government - Home affairs Select Committee Windrush Scandal - Amber Rudd scandal with targets Chair of SC provides a diff. career to then being a minister, less loyalty to parties, higher pay Evett Cooper - opted for intricate scrutiny instead of Labour front bench 3) CBBB committee - 2010-15 - 300 debates tabled by committee - public commissions 4) Public Accounts Committee (PAC) fearsome Chairship - Margaret Hodge - 2010 - 15 - cross party support - 2016 Tax affairs w/ Google - 130 million pounds

Answer 3

1) PMQs - 'Punch and Judy Show' - David Cameron, not effective, planted questions and memorable sound bites - 'long term economic plan' in the run-up to the 2015 general election PMQs can provided a useful tool to hold the government to account John Bercow stated in 2014 'There are people who think culturally the atmosphere is very male, very testosterone-fuelled and, in the worst cases, of yobbert and public school twittishness.' Hansard Society poll - just 12% of public were proud of parliament due to PMQs 67% felt that there was too much party political point-scoring as opposed to answering the questions asked. 2) use of Urgent Questions - speakers will choose short notice an MP - face around 1 hour of scrutiny just 2 questions between 2008-9 but 2009-15 Bercow allowed 300 UQs and in 2018-19 - 178 UQs- Shamima Begum

Answer 4

unelected - lacks legitimacy, therefore has 3 restrictions 1) Parliament Act of 1949 - 1 year delay 2) Parliament Act of 1911 - Financial Privilege and Money Bills 3) Salisbury Convention - manifesto and mandate EU act of 2020 - Lord's knowledge of large parliament and fresh mandate - influence curtailed HofL - much more effective at questioning ministers and select committees given Tory hereditary peers have been removed in the 199 House of Lords Act Crossbenchers have a pivotal status, no party affiliation, rights of vulnerable - Welfare Reform Bill - 7 defeats in the initial passage Held up the EU reform Act (2017) to add amendments - post Brexit rights for UK immigrants

Answer 5

Big gov... EU withdrawal Act (2020) - 80 seat maj... - House of Lords child refugee amendments rejected The government is fused to parliament Blair government 'acting like a rubber stamp' - the whips could choose members of the judiciary and promotion was tied to loyalty. Only 4 Commons defeats in all 10 years of Blair's tenure However... majority government is never absolute Even Blairs gov did not get their own way as they did not prevent Gwyneth Dunwoody to continue as Transport Chair 2001 Expenses Scandal - public opinion can shape oversight Wright Committee reforms, secret ballots, increase in salary, BBBC - shifted power to parliament??? - Boris Johnson and HS2 caution due to MP backlash in constituencies - ministers are wary of backbenchers and rebellion Hung parliament - coalition 2010-15 - jointly dominated seats and pushed through legislation such as the bedroom tax House of Lords - both Lib Dem and Tory peers could vote together - forming a block Cameron made over 200 House of Lords appointments to help the Tory's majority 2017 - 9 minority conservative government formed a confidence and supply agreement with the DUP and survived a no-confidence motion in 2019 New Speaker does not allow urgent questions (order 24) HOWEVER.... The majority is much more efficient than a hung parliament 2017-9 - Conservatives lost majority and were reliant on the unreliable DUPs - against gov in 2 key Brexit votes and Mays 2019 record defeat of 230 votes

Answer 6

trend - until the 2019 election, parliamentary assertiveness due to removal of Tories in HofL, cross benchers, Wright committee reforms and role of speakers HOWEVER.. the 80 seat restoration suggests its likely to reverse

Answer 7

IS THE UK DEMOCRACY IN DEFICIT?

Answer 8

voting rights, the franchise, now vs 100 years ago- right to Vote (1969) - everyone over 18 has the same right to vote, more and more people are getting involved - mayoral, HofC, devolution Easy to vote - most people understand FPTP it is the most efficient voting option - you don't get a strong majority with other methods of voting - stable gov (80 seats tory) which can deliver it's manifesto Minor parties are negatively impacted by FPTP but could be problems w/ the leadership, policies 16/17 year olds - but do they all know about politics?

Answer 9

10 representation - more women, LGBTQ, BAME in the H of C than ever before, coming from similar backgrounds as the public Legislation - scrutiny, maj governments that can deliver their manifesto - little gridlock, HofL, range of expertise

Answer 10

rights to education, votes, privacy, freedom of speech, press, association, judiciary have power and it has been strengethened over time, more independent and nuetral Freedom of Information - Daily Telegraph revealed the expenses scandal BUT they were heavily redacted Protection - Tory party tried to scrap in 2017 but it was dropped, Bruster case, right to protest

Answer 11

2015 rise in Labour support after Corbyn 2001-17 turnout has gradually increased petitions are being signed 6.1 mill petition for a 2nd referendum pressure groups - BMA, BLM, ER, educating and involvement - direct action

Answer 12

FPTP is unfair, leads to winning party getting disproportionate share of the vote = Tories won 37% of vote but 51% of seats vs. Lib Dems 12% of votes but 2% of seats How free are they? 16 and 17 year olds can't vote in England - devolution 2021 bills currently being passed in parliament - new requirement for voter ID which surpresses voter turnout - non conservative areas... Weaken the independence of the electoral committees

Answer 13

fusion of powers - no proper scrutiny, 2016 Trade Union Act and Investigatory Powers Act - altered rights of citizens and increased gov power Policing Bill 2022 - right to protest, affects rights of citizens representation but only 34% are women and the House of Lords are completely unelected

Answer 14

Stuart Wein - 'rule of law is what the government says it is' - can change laws and rights easily Freedom of the press - but F of I has been notoriously watered down - Gaurdian weren't allowed to publish arm deals information 2019 Tory manifesto - 'update' the HRA, 2021 policing Bill and Sarah Everards vigil - true democracy gives less power to the police and ensures checks and balances Freedom of Information - Daily Telegraph revealed the expenses scandal BUT they were heavily redacted

Answer 15

Labour membership isn't rising anymore Turn out fell in 2019 slacktivism, meaningful participation restrictions on the right to participate checkbook membership

Answer 16

EVALUATE THE VIEW THAT POLITICAL PARTIES SERVE DEMOCRACY

Answer 17

vast majority are elected to the major parties, 650 constituencies, should be representative? FPTP 37% vs 51% for Tories in 2015, people are underrepresented, voting system does not reflect their choices, Boris Johnson was elected as leader by Conservative Party members - less than 1% of the electorate (120,000) small party membership - big business donations that can effect conflicting interests Housing Minister Robert Generick in 2020 rushing through approval to satisfy Tory donor Richard Desmond to save £1 mill on tax - is this in the publics interest? Parties might be able to put their interest of their party over those that are meant to represent - in it for themselves? growing levels of cynicism Cash for Peerages scandal - secret donors of £12 mill to Labour Party Expenses Scandal - Lib Dem trouser Press, PM Brown gardens Jennifer Arcuri Scandal - public money as Boris's 'personal' friend

Answer 18

important part of democracy - subject gov to scrutiny, Kier starmer week after week questions government handling of COVID child cut benefits and tuition fees are scrutinised - Heidi Allens maiden speech tax credit cuts attack However... The fusion of powers hinders meaningful oversight parties in gov call the shots - Labour only lost one vote of tuition fees between 1997-2007 Conservative-Lib Dem coalition only lost 2 votes in the house of commons EU withdrawal act with little scrutiny

Answer 19

2015- Labour and coalition clashed on cuts to child benefits 2017 - clear choice with Corby and Boris - one party called for nationalision of railways vs. dismissal but... are all parties the same? Kier is more moderate centrist figure and has accepted Brexit Two party system perpetuated by FPTP drowns out voices of smaller parties with more radical and progressive ideas - both labour and tories manifestos say anything about reforming political systems - they dont want to change FPTP

Answer 20

canvasing, arranging meetings, urging people to vote, focus groups 2015 leadership election massive surge in Labour membership Local Branches in Labour Part ordinary members have a say in the leadership vote However... membership remains low - 0.5 m in one party and less than 1 m all together Corbyn did franchise youth but also disengaged current less radical Labour supporters, same with Boris and Pro EU tories

Answer 21

the "successor entity" to Corbyn's triumphant fight to be Labour leader. ideologically aligned with Corbyn. very separatist, holding a parallel conference during Party Conference last year. 'party within a party'- Its mission is to transform Labour into a "more democratic party" however, fears the group will trigger purges of more moderate MPs It boasts more than 35,000 members which can be mobilised to support (or oppose) MPs in the organisation's favour.

Answer 22

Explain and Analyse 3 factions of the Modern Labour Party

Answer 23

The original Blairite pressure group, founded in 1996 Dedicated to New Labour values- its chair is Alison McGovern MP, former aide to Gordon Brown influence has been waning since Ed Miliband in 2020, the group was marginalised from party discussions as it was out of touch with the direction of the party and Corbyn's leadership.

Answer 24

high-profile Labour politicians from different political wings of the party Unlike Labour for the Common Good (which is a PLP body), Labour Together has the intention of operating outside Westminster and becoming a general party movement. It's seen by some as an anti-Corbynite reaction to Momentum and aims to bring New Labour and New Labour together

Answer 25

Explain and analyse three factors that favour the major political parties in the British party system

Answer 26

undermines the idea that the UK party system is pluralistic, forces voters to tactically vote for a second choice even though it might not represent their views so they aren't 'wasting' their vote The Labour and Conservative Parties are the only parties with a realistic chance of forming a govt or being the senior members of a coalition in Westminster Consistently disadvantages the Lib Dems, whose support is widespread (not concentrated in individual constituencies) and therefore watered down UKIP won 13% of the vote in 2015 general election but only 1 sea1

Answer 27

Conservatives and Labour act as a catch all for voters Voters can align themselves with different factions/politicians eg. Labour: momentum on the far left of the party, Blairites more centrist Minority parties are left with little space on the political spectrum to represent Compounded by fact that there's little public appetite for radical ideologies (communism, fascism) if minor parties' policies do prove popular, majority parties will often incorporate them into their own manifestos (pressure groups?) eg. environment secretary Michael Gove announced his support for outlawing bee-killing pesticides in 2018 - after Corbyn had insisted it be in Labours manifesto and got the idea from the Greens who'd been campaigning on the issue since 2013 existence of UKIP as a party became nonsensical after the Conservatives pledged to deliver its fundamental aim - to leave the EU.

Answer 28

Tradition of voting either Tory or Labour passed down generations in families, communities and regions Voters have long sustained ties to a certain party - it is part of their identity and many feel they owe their loyalty to a certain party on account of their class, region etc. Voters in the former "Red Wall" confessed after the 2019 general election that they never would've considered voting for the conservatives if it weren't on the one-policy basis of Brexit. Minority parties struggle to win over voters when their voting habits are so entrenched

Answer 29

Explain and analyse three functions performed by UK political parties

Answer 30

Main parties help to recruit, socialise, select and promote talented individuals into elected public office, ranging from local council to national government levels. Assess the candidate's track record and qualities vetting process; cast aside those considered unsuitable for whatever reason

Answer 31

Traditionally, when there was mass membership of political parties in the UK and voters were clearly divided along party lines. Thatcher vs Foot - ideologically very opposed - could argue similarities between Blair and Cameron more recently. However - partisan and class dealignment and the rise of more centrist catch-all parties can be said to have undermined parties representative function. Membership of political parties has been in decline in the UK since the 1950s, falling by over 65% from 1983.

Answer 32

Perform an educative role - making the wider citizenry aware of topical issues this raising of awareness necessarily encourages political engagement as people become more interested and passionate about politics Promote political participation through internal democracy of parties (eg. Selection of MPs and leadership) However, influence ordinary pay-roll members have depends on the party Policy formulation in the Conservative Party has historically been a top-down process, with the party leader unashamedly determining policy - John Major remarked after 1992 general election manifesto "it was all me"

Answer 33

Explain and analyse the significance of three sources of the British constitution

Answer 34

Judge-made law (interpreting parliamentary statutes) and historical precedents, judges have developed the law through their binding decisions for centuries, establishing constitutional principles, defining the relationship between different branches, and the rights of citizens. · Statute law overrides common law in the case of a conflict, however, judges must interpret statutes, and they do so in line w/ common law. · 'Stare Decisis': formal system of precedent was established - when cases have similar facts + raise similar legal questions to cases decided in the past, judges must use the same reasoning as that used in the earlier court - ensuring that decisions are consistent and predictable .· E.g. A and Others v. Secretary of State - The applicants had been detained on the orders of the Home Secretary, as it was believed that they posed a terrorist threat. The detainees argued that the evidence underlying the decision to detain them, which had been supplied by foreign govts, was obtained by torture + should not have been admitted. HofL agreed that the common law has long forbidden such evidence to be admitted.

Answer 35

Law of constitutional importance created by Parliament.· It covers laws that impact on civil liberties + human rights - e.g. HRA 1998, which incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law. Makes the Brit Const flexible and adaptable. The trend had been towards expanding and protecting democracy and individual rights. The Scotland act of 1998 was one of several acts of parliament that created the devolved administration's. - The COVID-19 crisis has clearly demonstrated the extent to which the Scottish Government can challenge the authority of the UK government in relation to matters which have been devolved ( health, education, transport)

Answer 36

Established political norms/ unwritten traditions .· Enable govt. and political activity to run more smoothly.· e.g. the 1945 Salisbury Addison Convention - whereby the Lords agreed not to delay policies contained in the governing party's manifesto.· Normally work well - e.g. David Cameron had first chance to form a coalition govt after the indecisive result of the 2010 GE. It could be debated as to whether conventions are part of the constitution as they do not have the force of law and can be ignored if political circumstances make them inconvenient. For example, in 2017, the Supreme Court ruled that it could not enforce the Sewel convention in light of the UK's decision to leave the EU.

Answer 37

Explain and analyse three ways in which rights are protected in UK politics

Answer 38

Many citizens use the courts to assert and protect their rights giving citizens the opportunity to stand up to public bodies, including the government if they feel they are taking away their given rights.· The Supreme Court in particular allows for this as this is where human rights cases take place after the Human Rights Act of 1998. E.g. Al Rawi and others v Security Service and others. This was a defeat for the UK government and a victory for supporters of transparent justice, the case concerned human rights to a fair trial, namely whether the security services could give evidence in secret in certain terrorist trials. The Supreme Court therefore upheld the rights given in the ECHR to a fair trial in this case.

Answer 39

This act incorporated and enshrined the rights in the ECHR, European Convention on Human Rights, into British statute law.· Includes the right to life, a fair trial, freedom of thought and expression and freedom from discrimination. Pre 1998 human rights cases were only able to be held at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg however with the passing of this act they became available to be held by UK courts. It requires that the any government legislation must be in line with the ECHR and alongside EU law this creates a 'double lock' which strengthens citizen's rights. An example of a rights defended by the HRA is in 2004 a law preventing a gay partner from inheriting a council flat was 'ruled as incompatible' by the HRA. Although this double lock will be taken away by Brexit as EU law will no longer apply, because of the Human Rights Act citizen's rights remain protected by the ECHR.

Answer 40

This is through both anti-discrimination law, which protects citizen's rights and allowing the right to access information through public bodies. There is lots of legislation that has been passed to halt discrimination and the removal of rights, these statutes were compiled into one Act of Parliament with the Equality Act of 2010 which included equal pay and disability discrimination legislation. The Freedom of Information Act of 2000 ensured more political transparency by allowing citizens to access any non-security related information held by public institutions. This transparent access to information is crucial to protecting rights however the FOI Act's effectiveness can be challenged by the fact that 37% of requests were declined in 2016.

Answer 41

Explain and analyse three arguments in favour of the view that Britain should have a codified constitution

Answer 42

It could be said that Parliament should not be able to make fundamental changes to the constitution w/ only a simple act of parliament - since 1911 Parl. Acts, not even HofL can prevent a govt w/ support of the majority of HofC from amending Const. Intentionally difficult to amend = ensuring that amdts would receive intensive scrutiny and not undermine the constitution core principles.· Would stop us relying on political limits to constrain constitutional amdts and help restrain the behavior of govt. and keep MPs from ignoring the people's demands. E.g. Stop govt from violating human rights in times of emergencies like the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act in 2001.

Answer 43

The sovereignty of parl is essentially false as the HofL cannot veto bills and the Monarch always has to grant Royal Assent - reality the HofC is dominated by the govt. that have the majority of MPs on its side, thus essentially creating a Sovereign Government - No checks and balances. Could avoid 'elective dictatorship' - Lord Halisham described this to be true in 2 elections: 1974 Feb GE, Lab minority govt after winning only 37.2% and 1974 Oct: Lab forms majority govt after winning only 39.2% of vote - Halisham argued that since a small minority can win an election in Parl then unpopular acts can be enforced by a minority on the majority.

Answer 44

Conventions have not been written down - often up to interpretation and maybe less reliable. Can be ignored and not followed - limited in their power as they are not enforceable by law. Instead they are just understandings and may not be understood because they are not written down and explicitly explained. E.g. Oct 2015: Lords had to vote on a significant cuts to existing tax credits paid to people on lower incomes but... the Salisbury Convention - also it was argued that the lords do not block on "financial privilege, the onventions that the lords should not block anything to do with tax." - disagreememt

Answer 45

Explain and analyse three examples of greater protection of individual rights in the UK since 1997

Answer 46

allowed for greater protection as it has incorporated many of the provisions of the EHCR into UK law. When the HRA was passed, SC were given the power to overturn decisions of authorities, declaration of incompatibility eg. 2010 case the SC ruled that the HRA applied to all armed forces personnel serving outside the UK, troops have to be properly safeguarded. However, parliament have the final say as to what constitutes for British Law.

Answer 47

came into force 2005 and gives citizens the legal right to access information held by public authorities aslong as it does not compromise national security. 2009 MP expenses scandal. The FOI has become increasingly significant, with requests numbering 25,000 in 2005 rising to just under 50,000 in 2014

Answer 48

following the 2005 Constitutional Reform Act has increased separation of powers and judicial independence leading to widening scope of judicial activity for human rights. An important constraint on the executive branch of government and made an impact on the ability of the devolved bodies to take policy action independently from Westminster. E.g. Ruled that Welsh Assembly had acted beyond its powers in setting up an advisory panel on agricultural wages. Since 2019 prorogation ruling, clear that UK now views itself as a constitutional court, protecting Parliament's role in holding the government to account.

Answer 49

The election campaign is now more important than long-term factors in shaping voting behaviour.' Analyse and evaluate this statement.

Answer 50

before mid-1970s, primacy factors created an impression of stability. However, due the embourgeoisement of society in terms of ownership and consumerism, mass communication and change in party branding, many have said that we are a recency model. Direction: On balance the election campaign, through its ability to focus media and public attention on issues, policies, performance in office, leadership and image of the parties, would now seem to have the greater impact on voting behaviour.

Answer 51

Given the struggling economy and strong poll numbers in 1992, the Tory's 'Labour Tax bombshell' made people pessimistic of Labour. Same in 1997, 'Things Can Only Get Better' encapsulated public feeling, as people did not like the Tories economic policies and deep divisions which played out on TV and did not like the BSE crisis. 1997 demonstrated that the election campaign is now more important than long term factors because 47% of the C1 dealigned to Labour (21% Labour in 1983). Parties use 'salient' issues to demonstrate party competence and epitomise how voters want to weigh up their options in the 'near term campaign' and make a 'rational choice'. 1. For instance, the reason 44% of the 1.2 million people who left Labour in 2005 was because of the Iraq and immigration issue - which is all a part of campaigning and short-term factors.

Answer 52

Blair, young, skilled communicator, used 'spin doctors' to manipulate the media and convinced Murdoch to get Sun to support Labour. Had the vision to create New Labour, moving the party to the centre and reassuring middle class voters about the economy. In contrast, 2017 May began the campaign with a huge lead over Corbyn in polls but far less popular by election day. May refusal to participate in TV debates and aloof personal style. Tory campaign was based on her abilities as a leader, promising 'strong and stable' gov but backfired as she failed to connect with voters. In 2019, a poll asking why voters had not backed Labour saw 'leadership' coming out at top on 43% with Labour's policy on Brexit second at 17% and economic policies on 12%. Corbyn's lack of nationalism was seen as a problem. In contrast, the Conservatives' focus on the personality of Boris Johnson remained front and centre of the campaign.

Answer 53

In 2017 Jeremy Corbyn's policies, personality and leadership style were widely criticised by the media. Many newspapers, including the Sun, supported the Conservatives. May was weakened by her refusal to participate in the televised leaders' debates. Labour used social media to counter its negative publicity from traditional media and to reach out to younger people. 1992, the Sun newspaper published the headline 'It's the Sun Wot Won It'. In what turned out to be an extraordinarily close election, John Major's Conservative Party defied expectations and opinion polls to win a slim 21-seat majority. The final result saw the Conservatives gain 14,093,007 votes to Labour's 11,560,484, or 41.9% to 34.4%.

Answer 54

Each party still has a core vote, i.e. a group of voters who will loyally vote for a party from a distinct class. Indeed in 1983 the D/E class (the backbone of Labour) preferred Labour over the Tories by nine points despite the campaign going against Labour nationally. Furthermore, in 1997 the A/B class were 11 points more Tory than Labour despite everything in the campaign going against the Tories nationally - this is undeniably due to social class. Even in 2010 the A/B and D/E classes each opted for their traditional aligned parties with 40% each. However, it could be said that this link is weakening, as the class system weakens due to structural changes in the economy, and as economic issues are overtaken in importance by social issues such as immigration and Brexit. Due to embourgeoisement, and partisan dealignment it could be argued that class is far less important than it once was. Indeed in 2019, the Conservatives achieved an unprecedented 47% of C2s, and 41 per cent of DE groups. That said, class can and often does still play a significant role in determining voting behaviour.

Answer 55

In 2017, age was perhaps the key determining factor in how a person will vote, with 47 proving to be the age at which voters are most likely to move their support from Labour to the Conservatives. Although much was made in the wake of the 2017 general election of Jeremy Corbyn's ability to enthuse the young and motivate them to vote, they still remained far less likely to vote than older voters. Clearly there was a significant increase in the turnout of the under-30s in 2017, but more importantly, Labour was able to win a significantly higher percentage of the under-30 vote (around two-thirds), which the Conservatives couldn't quite match with the 50-70 age bracket. Parties know the significance of age to voting and tend to tailor their policies accordingly. A substantial increase in university fees will hit the young, who do not vote, but promising to protect or even increase pensions will please the elderly, who do vote. This all suggests primacy factors are still important compared to the election campaign.

Answer 56

Moreover, race is certainly a major factor given that 86% of Black Africans and 61% of Asians voted in Labour in 2010 - which is overwhelming and undeniably due largely to race and long-term economic issues. Even age is still important with the old being 15 points more Tory and 14 points less Lib Dem in 2010 than the young - show how important partisan alignment to the 75% of old people who turned out. The fact that Labour's turnout increased in many of their northern and urban heartlands in 2010 whilst the Tories got 41% in the Home Counties in 1997 is again major testament to how primacy factors often override short-term considerations.

Answer 57

In conclusion, the election campaign is, with the irrevocable rise of dealignment and 'political consumerism' now more important than long-term factors in determining voting behaviour. Primacy factors are only the main determinants for a shrinking number of core voters, with most voters making up their minds during the election campaign.

Answer 58

Explain and analyse three arguments in opposition of the view that Britain should have a codified constitution

Answer 59

· Problems with rigidity:- UK Const. uncodified = ability to evolve easier over time, whereas entrenched laws of codified consts can become outdated. E.g. US, has only been amended 17 times since Bill of Rights 1791.- If amdt process is too difficult then many new and modern amdts often are never able to get through the legislative. · Assets of flexibility:- Brit's flexibility of uncodified const means that it can adapt to issues like mass shootings easier and quicker then US for example. US: entrenched 2nd Amdt. vs the Firearms Act in 1997 banning all handguns in response to Dunblane Massacre 1996 - this prevented any future mass shootings.

Answer 60

· Some argue that UK does not need a codified const and with that comes stronger checks and balances on branches of govt - because the already present political constraints on the govt's power are arguably just as effective as legal limits. · Problem w/ gridlock: all debates grind to a halt + nothing happens w/in the govt. · Political limits on exec power in UK can be argued to be as effective as constitutional limits:- Official Opposition means the threat of defeat should make the govts limit the use of its considerable power in order to get re-elected.- Backbench MPs mean a govt w/ a large majority may be defeated by its own MPs if it strays too far from its manifesto commitments.

Answer 61

· Many argue that current uncodified const strikes a good balance between UK judges and elected officials - because people have elected executive branch + so are far more likely to recognize its legitimacy - the same is not true for judicial branch, so should have less power overall. · Benefits of existing relationship: The judicial branch can help to keep the politicians in check and help to enforce these unwritten conventions. The importance of a less important + politicized judiciary = anonymity and non-partisanship is protected in this branch, whereas the other two and saturated by this. E.g. Aug 2019, PM Boris Johnson tried to prorogue parl. - the judiciary branch stopped him, however, ultimately the power is in the hands of the elected officials - good because they are elected = accountable to voters and judiciary is not - useful as it works only to implement law.

Answer 62

Critics of the traditional const portray it as outdates, inefficient and undemocratic. Key elements of the common law, notably the royal prerogative, date back to medieval times - just as the HofL is a throwback to a pre-democratic era. It is hard to justify the hereditary principle in a liberal democratic state - even despite the reform to significantly reduce the no. hereditary peers e.g. HofL Act 1999: removed all but 92 hereditary peers.

Answer 63

Explain and analyse three criticisms of the UK's constitutional arrangements

Answer 64

Dangerously at centre + there are few safeguards against the arbitrary exercise of state power.· Parliamentary sovereignty + the absence of a codified const. mean that even the key tenets of the rule of law are not fully protected. A govt. w/ a strong majority can force through legislation, undermining civil liberties and weakening other institutions Lord Halisham described this as an 'elected dictatorhsip'. Also, neither local nor subnational govt. has constitutionally protected status.

Answer 65

The uncodified nature of the const. creates problems of clarity and interpretation - not always immediately clear when a govt. has acted unconstitutionally. Parl, controlled by the govt. of the day, is the final arbiter of the const. The govt can even use its control of the legislature to pass new Acts that overturn unfavourable rulings in the courts. The rights and responsibilities of citizens are poorly defined and entrenched, making it difficult for citizens to engage with the system.

Answer 66

'The UK Parliament is unable to prevent elective dictatorship.' Analyse and evaluate this statement.

Answer 67

it is open to debate. LORD HAILSHAM DEFINITION Fusion of powers combined with large governing majority = hard to scrutinise. In recent years, limited ability for Parliament to scrutinise secondary legislation and weakness of the opposition has exacerbated this. However... recent increase in slim governing majorities, rising opportunities for the backbench MPs, changes to Select Committees, resergence from the HofL and Brexit circumstances have all served to redress the balance in favour of Parliament. Direction = to do with size of government, Johnson's large maj atm suggests a situation where Parliament is unable to prevent an elective dictatorship

Answer 68

means that parliament cannot prevent elective dictatorship when it comes to legislating and controllign the Parliamentary table. Role of the whips, controlling voting and agenda, government forced through the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 2005 in 17 days, most legislation is government legislation. There are opportunities in private members bills but they are largely unsuccessful.

Answer 69

COVID!!!!, in recent years governments have used the negative procedure to avoid votes and debates on statutory instruments (Negative procedure is a type of parliamentary procedure that applies to statutory instruments. An SI laid under the negative procedure becomes law on the day the Minister signs it and automatically remains law unless a motion is agreed by either House within 40 sitting days) that implements significantly more divisive policy measures. Of the 261 COVID related SIs laid before Parliament before 2021, 187 used the negative procedure, only one of them has been debated. Although the House of Lords challenged 2015 tax credits, this is unlikely to be repeated due to the Strathclyde review

Answer 70

weak performances at PMQs, opposition can lack a mandate or be divided after an election loss. eg. June 2016, 2/3 of Labour shadow cabinet resigned against Corbyn due to his lackluster support of remain campaign. In June 2016, 172 labour voted in no confidence, only 40 supported Corbyn. Impact on Parliamentary scrutiny.... if the opposition is internally fighting, can it hold the Gov to account. May have access to short money and budget for office of the opposition leader, but lacks institutional advantage the gov have (civil service access)

Answer 71

creation of BBBC in June 2010, urgent questions and emergency debates BUT reliant on the speaker, Hoyle not really but Bercow - just 2 questions between 2008-9 but 2009-15 Bercow allowed 300 UQs and in 2018-19 - 178 UQs .... BREXIT !!!! March 2019, MPs voted 331-287 in a business of the house motion to take control of the day's business and hold 'indicative votes' on preferred Brexit options. After May's defeat by 230 votes on her Brexit deal in January 2019 — the largest parliamentary defeat of any prime minister in history. Boris Johnson became the first prime minister since Lord Rosebery in 1894 to lose his first vote, due to another Brexit-related defeat on 3 September. Johnson failed to win a vote until 15 October, primarily due to defeats over Brexit. These case studies suggest that Brexit has undoubtedly led to more scrutiny of the government

Answer 72

Wright Committee Reforms, the chairs of SCs are now elected by MPs across the Commons and are paid an additional salary. They are more independent - June 2014, the Tory MP Sarah Wollaston, a doctor - critical of the Government's health policies, elected as Chair of the Health Committee. Overall, quality has significantly improved - more discussion of Brexit, better attendance, more opportuibes for new chairs with experience, e.g. Exiting the European Union Sellect Ctte, grilled David Davis. 2017 Dec. Called more oral witnesses than any other dring the same period.

Answer 73

considerable impact in bills, lords act as a revising chamber, sometimes gov will try to avoid confrontation. In the 2015-16 Parliamentary Session, the Lords considered 78 bills, and made 1,254 amendments, several of which were very significant. Crossbenchers have a pivotal status, no party affiliation, rights of vulnerable Welfare Reform Bill - 7 defeats in the initial passage Held up the EU reform Act (2017) to add amendments - post Brexit rights for UK immigrants

Answer 74

despite new opportunities for backbench MPS, minority of May's gov and assertiveness of HofL and BBBC during Brexit process, the theoretical powers of Parl are still too limited to prevent an elective dictatorship. With the return of Johnson's government of 80 MP majority, the opportunities to defeat gov will return to pre-Brexit levels.

Answer 75

'The UK is a thriving representative democracy'. Analyse and evaluate this statement

Answer 76

UK= traditionally seen as a representative democracy, where people transfer the power to make decisions to elected representives in Parliament, and it is currently thriving due to active culture of political participation, free and fair elections and devolution, However, the existence of a democratic deficit, lack of representation in Parliamnet and the increasing use of direct democracy means that democracy is far from 'thriving' and is in serious need of renewal

Answer 77

pressure groups, party members, campaigning Turnout increasing in recent years 2015 rise in Labour support after Corbyn 2001-17 turnout has gradually increased petitions are being signed 6.1 mill petition for a 2nd referendum pressure groups - BMA, BLM, ER, educating and involvement - direct action

Answer 78

- Improvements to franchise, historically, women and working classes, 18-21 yr olds enfranchised. - Electoral commission, - Elected representatives hold Public have ultimate power in making, amending and repealing laws due to parliamentary sovereignty voting rights, the franchise, now vs 100 years ago- right to Vote (1969) - everyone over 18 has the same right to vote, more and more people are getting involved - mayoral, HofC, devolution Easy to vote - most people understand FPTP it is the most efficient voting option - you don't get a strong majority with other methods of voting - stable gov (80 seats tory) which can deliver it's manifesto Minor parties are negatively impacted by FPTP but could be problems w/ the leadership, policies

Answer 79

accompanying creation of new opportunities to elect representatives through more proportional electoral systems, has contributed still further to the UK's thriving representative democracy. - More opportunities to participate - More elections, with better electoral systems.

Answer 80

- Pressure groups, elitism - some find way round spending rules set by electoral commission. - Hyperpluralism - too many pressure groups - 'Hollowness/shallowness' of digital democracy and online campaigning. - Low turnout apathy - combined with lack of trust in politicians. Declining turnout, party membership low compared to 1950s - Some barred from franchise - e .g. prisoners, 16-18 year olds.

Answer 81

- Peers - unelected, unpresented - EVEL - Westminster, problems - - Parliament only 34% of MPs were women, half over 50, 86% went to university compared to 20% of UK. - Fixed Term Palriaments Act being removed.

Answer 82

Critics argue that the fusion of our executive and legislative branches can result in an 'elective dictatorship' - Lord Hailsham, in which governments with increasingly weak mandates nonetheless dominate Parliament. As the government is drawn from parliament, ministers are able to vote for government bills as they progress through Parliament. Party whips can also use the prospect of future promotion to the frontbenches to persuade career-minded backbench MPs to loyally support the government. As a result, any government that enjoys a sizeable majority is incredibly difficult to defeat. This is arguable concerning because recent majority governments have had questionable mandates - 2015, Tories won 51% of seats with just 36% of the vote. As turnout was just 66.1%, it is arguable that there are insufficient checks on policies that only 24.4% of eligible voters have actually endorsed. Some voters may feel that, once in power, they have too little influence over the governing party. Eg. Theresa Mays decisioon over a third runway at Heathrow - her consituents of Maidenhead disapproved.

Answer 83

- The 2016 EU referendum showed that a narrow majority of voters wanted to leave the EU, but this was not at all reflected in Parliament. Of all the parties holding seats in the House of Commons, only UKIP and the DUP endorsed the 'Leave' campaign. A pre-referendum survey found that 480 MPs were planning to vote Remain, 159 MPs would vote Leave, and 11 MPs were undeclared. - Former UKIP leader Nigel Farage called the EU referendum a "victory for the real people, for the ordinary people, for the decent people", who he feels have been unrepresented. Voters today are much better educated, and far less deferential than they were decades ago, and many would prefer MPs to begin acting more like delegates, acting as instructed by constituents, and less like trustees, who believe that, with their greater expertise and experience, they should ultimately decide for themselves how to vote. For example, many were critical when MPs voted 330-118 against the Assisted Dying Bill in 2015, even though polls suggested that the reforms were supported by 82% of the public.

Answer 84

representative democracy is far from thriving, While turnout has been increasing in recent elections among the young, it remains seriously low by international comparison, and party membership is still significant lower than in previous decades. While there has been a significant rise in online participation, digital campaigning is not a robust substitute for more traditional forms of political participation. Finally, the long-term trends in public attitude to representatives in Parliament, as seen in recent Referendum results, suggests people are far from happy with their representative democracy as it currently stands in the UK.

Answer 85

Explain and analyse three features of representative democracy

Answer 86

Edmund Burke, conservative thinker and 18th century Member of Parliament - argued for a 'trustee' (Burkean) model of representation - make judgement in the best interests of their constituents, not simply to do what they wanted them to do. Therefore, MPs should be prepared to sometimes make decisions/take action that does not directly represent the wishes of their constituents. advantage of this representation is that, as public cannot be expected to have the time or interest to make important/regular decisions, representatives can ensure the interest of all their constituents are taken into account, and can then be held accountable at election E.G. Quote from Burke, 1774 - 'your representatives owes you not his industry only but his judgement', and 'he betrays you if he sacrifices it to your opinion' - representative democracy attempts to ensure people from all walks of life have their interests represented in parliament

Answer 87

elections in the UK are largely free and fair, as everyone over the age of 18, who is not a prisoner, mentally incapable or a peer is allowed to vote E.G. this is as a result of Representation of the People Acts (1918)/(1969) + Equal Franchise Act (1928) Fixed term Parliament Act (2011) requires elections to be held at regular intervals in the name of fairness (although 2017/19 snap elections break this)- Electoral Commission works to ensure elections are fair, 11 parties contest elections to the UK parliament, so there is a variety of representation, pressure groups representing minority interests + social interests also factor into fairness + election turnout in recent years has been rising, so representative democracy still works as a 21st century model

Answer 88

Pressure groups and political parties are free to form and challenge the government While minority causes may go overlooked by the main parties, they can be criticised by pressure groups and third parties. E.g. UKIP struggled to win seats in parliament, but put pressure on David Cameron to call EU referendum - pressure groups help protect minorities from the tyranny of the majority. They provide alternative means of political participation for those who are uninterested in the main political parties. E-petitions have also proven as a popular means for pressure groups to encourage Parliament to debate overlooked issues - petition.org, Parliament debated 31 e-petitions from 2011 to 2015

Answer 89

Explain and analyse three arguments against the greater use of direct democracy in the UK

Answer 90

Direct democracy relies on majority votes from the public in referendums, and as such minority groups and interest may have their needs and concerns overlooked - this ties into populist outcomes, where people tend to vote on popular short-term measures that will benefit them rather than considering what will be in the national interest and good for the country as a whole E.G. can be argued that Brexit referendum was tyranny of the majority, as many could not vote + Scotland/Northern Ireland voted to remain but will be forced to leave - EU citizens in the UK also denied their say on the issue - 51% vote vs 48-9%, difficult to agree whether 51% result implies consent, as the other 49% of the electorate are opposed - interests of 16.1 million voters ignored in Brexit referendum

Answer 91

can be said to undermine the power of elected representatives, allowing them to pass the responsibility for difficult decisions, which they were elected to carry, to the public. This means that representatives are less accountable and have less responsibility for policy decisions. E.G. Lords Select Constitution Committee on Referendums in the United Kingdom, 2010 Steve Richards - 'referendums undermine the parliamentary process' Peter Kellner - 'referendums undermine parliamentary democracy' Peter Browning - sovereignty of parliament is certainly threatened by use of referendums.' The sovereignty of parliament because the sovereignty of the people...introducing direct democracy into the political system...challenges the indirect, representative democracy which has been the essence of Uk democracy. If the people vote on way, their representatives another, who should prevail, who is sovereign? 'David Cameron forced to resign following 2015 referendum

Answer 92

most important aspect of political participation, voting allows citizens to transfer power to representatives and then hold them to account. However, lower turnout in recent years means that elections are less representative than before there has been low turnout since 1997 - 59% in 2001, 61% in 2005, 65% in 2010, 66% in 2015 and 67.3% in 2019; which means fewer people are turning out to vote than ever before, devaluing the results of the most important aspect of political participation in the UK. Low turnout in these elections also undermines their purpose as politicians do not need to fear an electorate that does not turnout to hold them to account.

Answer 93

Explain and analyse three forms of political participation in the United Kingdom

Answer 94

Arguably the most important aspect of political participation, voting allows citizens to transfer power to representatives and then hold them to account. However, lower turnout in recent years means that elections are less representative than before E.G. General election turnout between 1945-1992 was typically above 75%, peaking at 84% in 1950 - historically, high level of participation in general elections, However, 1997 landslide general election was at 70% turnout, meaning that the 179 seat majority was won with 500,000 less votes than the 1992 majority of 22 seats - therefore electoral participation can be criticised as being unfair. Furthermore, there has been low turnout since 1997 - 59% in 2001, 61% in 2005, 65% in 2010, 66% in 2015 and 67.3% in 2019; which means fewer people are turning out to vote than ever before, devaluing the results of the most important aspect of political participation in the UK. Low turnout in these elections also undermines their purpose as politicians do not need to fear an electorate that does not turnout to hold them to account.

Answer 95

Joining a political party is another form of participation, as it allows citizens to get involved with the activities and campaigns organised by these parties. However, while Labour has, as of 2020, become the biggest political party in Europe by membership, party membership in the UK/Europe has rapidly declined since the 1980s, which could be an indication of growing apathy towards politics in the UK, and a lack of participation/enthusiasm for the political process. E.G. 1950s, Labour Party has more than 1mil. Members, Conservative Party has 2.8 million members - 1983, 3.8% of population is a member of a party - However, now, less than 1% of population is a member of a party, and the numbers have reduced dramatically overall: Labour, 517,000 as of March 2017 Conservative, 149,800 members as of December 2013 This means that party funds are reduced, parties are less representative (Labour anti-Semitism issues, Conservative Islamophobic/anti-migrant sentiment), there is a smaller group of people influencing the direction of party policy, etc. etc.

Answer 96

Social media has made it easier for people to participate in the political process - but slacktivism/trolling undermines the impact of online participation as they can lead to fake news, sometimes even by political parties E.G. - petition.org set up by Backbench Business Committee in 2010, any petition which gains more than 100,000 signatures will be recommended for debate to the house by BBBC - There are various pressure group websites, which function similarly to the petition.org website, e.g. 38degrees - . 2019 general election, 88% of the Conservative party's most widely promoted ads featured claims which had been flagged by independent fact-checking organisations as being not correct/or not entirely correct - followed by YouGov poll that suggested 87% of voters think there needs to be a law against this type of misinformation

Answer 97

Explain and analyse three criticisms of the UK's democratic arrangements

Answer 98

Representative democracy can be said to be unrepresentative; with some critics arguing that the Uk is more elitist than it is pluralist - wealthy/well-connected groups can be said to have considerable influence over govt - E.G. 2010 Cash for Influence scandal. Rep. democracy also means that the fusion of exec/legislative branches creates 'elective dictatorship' - which governments with weaker mandates can still dominate parliament. - 2015 GE, Conservative Party won 330 seats with 36.9% of the vote on a turnout of 66.1% - 24.4% total vote for government, therefore it can be said that there is an insufficient level of checks on government policies from voters

Answer 99

FPTP can be said to be unrepresentative of voters; 3.8 million UKIP voters in 2017, one MP elected - furthermore, if the voting system in the 2019 general election was proportional rather than first-past-the-post, the difference between the Conservative seats claimed would see their majority go from 365 to 288, which leaves the system open to further criticism FPTP also encourages tactical voting, as voters often vote not for the candidate they most prefer, but against the candidate they most dislike - FPTP can be regarded as wasteful, as votes cast in a constituency for losing candidates count for nothing, which leads to some people feeling they do not need to vote

Answer 100

The franchise is limited to 18-year olds, which means that 16/17-year olds, who can legally have sex, join the army and work cannot vote. Furthermore, certain electoral participation methods which do include 16/17-year olds make it obvious that young people are eager to be involved in politics, and so denying them the vote can be said to limit their rights e.g. Scottish Independence Referendum - which had an 84.6% turnout - the highest since 1910, and almost 15% higher than the Brexit referendum. Also, prisoners are not allowed to vote, and homeless people cannot vote due to registration restrictions, meaning that a sizeable proportion of the over-18 UK electorate is disenfranchised

Answer 101

Explain and analyse three factions of the Labour Party

Answer 102

-New Labour and politicians closer to the centre of Labour had control of the party from 1994 with the election of the Blair as leader, until their election loss in 2010 and the following resignation of Gordon Brown. -Politicians who fall under the category of this faction are usually referred to as "Blairites" or "Brownites", and current politicians who fall under this category include Yvette Cooper. -They advocate a more moderate economic policy, embracing markets and opposing outright nationalisation of industry, instead calling for the government to work with private enterprises. -Whilst they still place a strong emphasis on a welfare state, they are more likely to provide conditions on their benefit schemes, such as Tony Blair's famous "hand-up, not hand-out" comment in relation to New Labour's welfare policies.

Answer 103

-this faction is often in contention with the 'Blairite' wing of the Labour Party, and this division has been emphasised in recent years since the surprise victory of Jeremy Corbyn in the 2015 leadership election. -The faction had relative success with the surprise gain in seats in the 2017 election, but the worst Labour defeat since 1935 in the 2019 election has increased scepticism on their electability and prompted the resignation of Corbyn. -Other politicians considered to be in this faction are Dianne Abbott. -They advocate more radical economic change including increased nationalisation and taxation and are more openly socialist than other factions of the party that embrace capitalism and markets to a degree.

Answer 104

-This faction occupies a centre-left position between the left-wing democratic socialists and the more centrist Third Way politicians. -Ed Miliband, Labour leader from 2010-2015, is considered to be a soft-left politician, but suffered a defeat in the 2015 election that ended the period of control for this wing of the party. -Many of the politicians currently running for leader or deputy-leader of the party after the regonisition of Corbyn fell under this catergory, recognising the opposition of the membership to centrism but also the wider electorate's scepticism towards Corbynism. -Current leader of the labour party Keir Starmer is in this faction.

Answer 105

Explain and analyse three factions of the Conservative Party

Answer 106

It advocates the preservation of established institutions and traditional principles within a political democracy, in combination with social and economic programmes designed to benefit the ordinary person According to this political philosophy, society should be allowed to develop in an organic way, rather than being engineered E.g. Boris Johnson, David Cameron, Oakeshott The party's dominant ideology in the 20th century until the rise of Thatcherism in the 1970s E.g. Stanley Baldwin, Harold Macmillan, Malcom Rifkind Broad liberal conservative stance, associated with Tory Reform Group and Bow Group Social cohesion and support social institutions that maintain harmony between different interest groups, classes, and difference races and religions Red Tories Ian Duncan Smith, Jesse Norman Conflicting views on EU membership

Answer 107

Thatcherism is a type of British conservative ideology named after Conservative Party leader, Margaret Thatcher The term has been used to describe the principles of the British government under Thatcher from 1979-90, and continuing into the governments of John Major and David Cameron Economic liberals who achieved dominance after the election of Thatcher as party leader in 1975 Reduce role of government in economy, support cuts in direct taxation, privatisation of nationalised industries, and reduction in size and scope of welfare state Differing views on social policy and EU Associated with No Turning Back Group and Conservative Way Forward Adam Smith institute Liberal Conservatives Liberal conservatism incorporates the classical-liberal view of minimal government intervention in the economy, according to which individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference However, liberal conservatism also holds that individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life, therefore liberal conservatives believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation

Answer 108

Until the 2019 election, Europe, or more precisely the EU, was the main fracture line in the party. Successive Tory leaders were plagued by the division between Leavers and Remainers, Eurosceptics and Europhiles. Euroscepticism is a key faction of the conservative party, which, until the 2019 election, was the main fracture in the party. Tory leaders have been plagued by the divisions between Eurosceptics and Remainers for decades. By delivering a referendum on continued membership of the EU in 2016, Cameron hoped to finally settle the matter. However, the narrow Leave victory simply confirmed divisions went deeper, as opposing factions of the Conservative party squabble over terms of any negotiated deal. The emphatic victory of Johnson in December 2019 heralded if not the end, at least the beginning of the end to this ongoing fissure. Traditional conservatives, linked with the Cornerstone group Support for the Church/Anti abortion

Answer 109

Explain and analyze three differences in the structure of the Conservative and Labour parties in the UK

Answer 110

The conservatives have the Local Conservative Associations, whereas the Labour Party has a Constituency Labour Party (CLP) in each constituency. LCA organises the grassroots of political party and plans local campaigns and selecting candidates CLP takes the lead in local national election campaigns Therefore there's a big difference in the party's local level structure, and what they do as a result

Answer 111

Main central body of Labour Party is National Executive Committee (NEC) NEC is essentially a political body and many members are chosen because they are on the right or left of the party. This means that the NEC was not very good at actually ensuring the party ran smoothly E.g. Labour Party financial difficulties in 2007 led to the setting up of a group to oversee the management of the party. Tories have Conservative Central Office Consists of professional staff, was the national organisation of the Conservative Party with a Chairman, appointed by the Leader, in overall control. Day to day running of party machine is undertaken by Board of the Conservative Party- made up of representatives from each section of the party, like MPs and local associations 3/18 members grassroots party- overseen by Annual Convention

Answer 112

Conservative: MPs vote in a series of ballots to narrow the choice of candidates down to only 2 names. In 2019, nine MPs secured enough support to stand, but after a succession of votes by conservative MPs, 7 eliminated, leaving just Jeremy Hunt and Boris Johnson on the ballot for party members to make their choice Candidates must first secure the backing of at least 10% of Labour MPs, and also either 5% of constituency parties or at least 3 affiliates (two of which must be trade unions). 2020: Emily Thornberry failed to get sufficient support from the affiliates section and therefore was unable to proceed to the first round of the vote Kier Starmer, Rebecca Long-Bailey and Lisa Nandy all qualified to stand in the first round of the vote of party members

Answer 113

'Individual members of the main British political parties have little influence or control over party policy.' Analyse and evaluate this statement.

Answer 114

- In the 2017 leadership election, there were five candidates, after two rounds of MP ballots, Theresa May and Andrea Leadsom emerged as the top two candidates. - However, before the vote could go to party members, Theresa May was declared the winner after Andrea Leadsom dropped out of the race. - Some argued that, without member support, May lacked mandate to lead the party. - After Tony Blair resigned in 2007, Gordon Brown automatically became the next party leader after he was nominated by 308 MPs - making it impossible for rival John McDonnell to reach the 45 nominations he required to run. - In 2010, Ed Miliband beat his brother David to the leadership even though the majority of MPs and Constituency members preferred him to Ed - Ed had more trade union support and some argued this was unfair. - The electoral college system has been criticised as 1/3 votes given to 270 MPs, and 1/3 vote to 160,000 party members and 1/3 to 2 million in affiliated groups, meaning 1 MP vote worth hundreds of member votes and thousands of affiliated votes. - Also possible for someone to vote more than once - an MP could vote as a constituency party member and a trade union member. - Corbyn was elected under this new system in September 2015, winning a landslide victory with 59.5% of the vote. - During the initial MP nomination process, Corbyn secured his final few MP nominations minutes before the final deadline. - Many of his nominees said they would not vote for him but wanted his more left-wing views to feature in the election debate. - In 2016, 172 Labour MPs supported a motion of no confidence in the Labour leader, with only 40 MPs voting to support Corbyn. - On 24 September 2016, the party announced that Corbyn had won the election with 61.8% of the vote, defeating rival Owen. - The NEC had decided to automatically add Corbyn to the ballot, also they decided to exclude anyone who had joined Labour or an affiliated organization after Jan 2016, unless they paid £25 - Critics argued this was an attempt to disenfranchise poorer members.

Answer 115

- All-women shortlists have proven controversial — not least because they serve to discriminate against suitably able and qualified male candidates. - At the 2005 general election, the independent candidate Peter Law was elected to represent the constituency of Blaenau Gwent, having been prevented from seeking selection as the official Labour Party candidate by the party's imposition of an all-women shortlist. - Despite making a pledge in the Coalition Agreement to fund open primaries for 200 all-postal primaries, the party soon fell quiet on the issue of further open primaries. - It has been speculated that the rebellious behaviour of Dr Sarah Wollaston, coupled with the cost of running the open primary process, has scared the leadership off the idea of letting the public decide.

Answer 116

- Until the late 1990s, Conservative Party policy was largely determined by its leader - - John Major famously on the 1992 general election manifesto: 'It was all me.' - The establishment of a national party Policy Forum in 1998 appeared to allow for grassroots participation in the process but the initiative was short-lived. - The party's 2010 general election manifesto was said to have been written entirely by David Cameron, Oliver Letwin and Steve Hilton (director of strategy), while Jo Johnson MP was said to have been behind the drafting of the 2015 manifesto. - Traditionally, they have been more direct in acknowledging that the party leadership takes responsibility for policy, with conferences more for rallying members and projecting the right image to the media. - Historically, the Labour Party conferences held a significant policy-forming role. - However, in recent years, influence has shifted towards the leadership after Tony Blair established the National Policy Forum, which consists of a number of policy committees that each draw up policy proposals for the National Executive Committee. - Many critics have argued that the party's national conference has become a symbolic rubber stamp of approval, rather than a means for vigorous debate over policy. - At the 2013 conference, delegates voted unanimously to renationalise the railways and reverse the coalition's privatisation of Royal Mail. - However, despite strong support for both policies, the party leadership announced that renationalisation would not make it into the party's next election manifesto. - Corbyn has taken some limited steps to make the party more democratic. - He has asked members to submit their own questions ahead of Prime Minister's Questions, and he asked members for their views ahead of the 2015 debate on whether to authorise military action in Syria. - Rail renationalisation has also now become party policy. - However, one problem with this is that there is a huge gulf between the views of many of the party's left-wing members, and the Parliamentary Labour Party.

Answer 117

- historically, no input, however, Since 1998 Conservative MPs vote in a series of ballots that involve party members and narrow the field of leadership candidates down to two - members vote on a one member, one vote basis to decide which of these two becomes party leader. Shows how become more democratic - A leadership contest can be triggered if the current leader resigns or dies, or if 15% of Conservatives write to the Chairman of the 1922 Committee saying they no longer have confidence in the leader. - In the 2017 leadership election, there were five candidates, after two rounds of MP ballots, May and Leadsom emerged as the top two candidates. - From 1981-1992 the Labour party used an electoral college system (30% vote for MPs, 40% for delegates representing TUs, and 30% vote for delegates representing constituency parties) - votes were cast in blocks by delegates attending the party conference - union leaders would decide how to vote on behalf. - It was later argued that individuals' members should decide how to vote individually and in 1993, a new system of one member one vote was introduced - trade unions and constituency Labour parties now had to ballot their members individually. - 1/3 of the vote went to Labour MPs, a third to affiliated organisations, and third to constituency parties - the election used the AV system. - Candidates must secure the nomination of 15% of the Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP) to qualify for the ballot if previous leader steps down, 20% if wish to challenge existing leader

Answer 118

After parties list approved candidates, local party ass. Draw up short list for members vote from. Leadership comfortable knowing scrutinised + approved - All-women shortlists - Labour's practice of employing women-only shortlists existed in its original form between 1993 and 1996. - Although it was briefly outlawed under the Sex Discrimination Act in 1996, the government subsequently amended the legislation to allow such lists. - This exemption to anti-discrimination legislation was subsequently enshrined in the Equality Act 2010. - The use of all-women shortlists in many safe Labour seats contributed to the significant increase in the number of women MPs returned to parliament at the 1997 general election. - Labour has seen a change in the class demographics of Labour MPs. In 1964, 37% had worked in manual jobs. Today that figure is 7%. - In a similar attempt to bring greater diversity to the House of Commons, David Cameron created a controversial 'A-List' of diverse candidates that local associations were encouraged to include in their shortlists. - In 2009, the Conservative Home website reported that the 'A-list' was being quietly dropped and that local party associations would once again choose freely from the list of approved candidates. - It has also experimented with open primaries, in which all registered voters, not just party members, can vote to select the party candidate. - In August 2009, the constituency of Totnes selected the-now-MP Dr Sarah Wollaston as the Conservative candidate after the party posted out postal ballots to all 68,000 registered voters. - Despite making a pledge in the Coalition Agreement to fund open primaries for 200 all-postal primaries, the party soon fell quiet on the issue of further open primaries. Rebellious behaviour Wollaston + cost = put-off letting public decide

Answer 119

Until late 1990s C policy largely by leaders - canvassed views senior colleagues, 1922 comm, party elders + membership. Top-down. Major '92 'it was all me'. - They have recently made efforts to involve members by re-launching the Conservative Policy Forum in 2011 to allow members to discuss policy and make suggestions for the future direction of the party. - In addition, party members have spoken up when policies are introduced that they do not agree with. - In 2013, former PM David Cameron introduced same-sex marriage in the UK, despite a lack of support from party members. - Several MPs and senior party members spoke out against the decision, accusing Cameron of 'betraying' the grassroots of the party by not allowing for "adequate debate or consultation." - In the past, The Labour Party conferences were genuine policymaking events but from 1997 the party adopted a 2-year policy-making cycle. - The National Policy Forum appointed policy commissions to make proposals which were then formalised in the National Executive Committee, before passing to the party conference for approval - this process helped the party to avoid the kinds of nasty surprises and public shows of disunity that had characterised earlier party conferences - bur such reforms could be said to have reduced the party conference to little more than a rubber stamp for policies agreed elsewhere.

Answer 120

UK political parties are becoming increasingly ideological. Analyse and evaluate this statement

Answer 121

Labour Corbyn, and Thatcher taking Conservatives to the Right.

Answer 122

Greens, Brexit BUT complex point as does the development of more ideologically smaller parties, suggest larger parties have become less ideological.

Answer 123

Splits over , economics, social reforms, Covid restriction, over Brexit, over support for Johnson during party gate suggests rise in ideology.

Answer 124

echo chamber effect have contributed to the greater populism / extremism / ideological divergence. More partisan. Media has reinforced divisions over Brexit. Daily Mail, - enemies of people - supreme court justices after Miller I case - triggering ARTICLE 50.

Answer 125

as Blair represented Labour moving away from its previously strongly ideological position. Attempt to the mainstream, middle class voters by reforming clause 4 in constitution, and dropping nationalisation Starmer attempting the same. David Cameron did the same with his attempt to 'detoxify' or rebrand or rehabilitate the Conservative party. By removing some of its more radical, neo-liberal policies, particular on crime - 'hug a hoody'. 2005 onwards soften Thatcherite policies of his party. Johnson and levelling up agenda - appeal to one nation - he is determined un ideological

Answer 126

'There is now an overwhelming case for a codified constitution.' Analyse and evaluate this statement

Answer 127

Summarise main points Address now and overwhelmingly. Does a codified constitution fit the UK more now than it did previously?

Answer 128

The government argued that the House of Lords had broken multiple conventions, including the Salisbury Convention and the Common's 'financial privilege,' when the House voted to block its tax credit reforms in 2015. Many in the Lords, however, took an entirely different view, leading to a brief constitutional crisis in which ultimately, the Government backed down. The Lords have adhered to the Salisbury Convention since 1945. The only times it has broken it has been in the last 20 years, suggesting that the Lords are becoming more willing to break a key source of the UK's constitution. Perhaps a codified constitution could fix this. It could be argued that this is a political anomaly. The strength of many conventions in the UK is evident by how rarely they are broken - they often stand the test of time and are respected and upheld. It is not necessarily the case that a codified constitution would be more reliable as conventions are almost inevitable. EG. The US constitution does not mention the Cabinet, it is simply a convention.

Answer 129

The US Constitution establishes a clear separation of powers. Any members of the executive branch cannot also be members of the legislative branch, meaning the President can propose bills, but is unable to vote in Congress. Could be argued that the constitution is becoming increasingly codified anyway - Cabinet manual 2011 By contrast, our executive and legislative branches are fused, with the PM and other government ministers able to sit and vote in the HoC. This may result in a 'elective dictatorship,' arising in the UK. For example, the Blair-Brown government lasted over a decade and only suffered 7 defeats in the Commons. A new codified constitution could more clearly separate power between the three branches of government, creating new, stronger, checks and balances. However, a stronger separation of powers could lead to unproductive gridlock and judicial activism. The US situation clearly shows this, given that two government shutdowns occurred in 2018 and 2019. Moreover, a codified constitution would only politicise the judiciary and create debates on how and if unelected judges can interpret the constitution.

Answer 130

an uncodified constitution makes it difficult for citizens to learn about their rights, and how government works. In America it is relatively easy for school pupils to learn about their system of government and constitutional rights because all of the necessary information is contained in the codified US Constitution. The first articles establish and explain the powers of the different branches of government, while the Bill of Rights explains the rights of the people. In contrast, the UK's uncodified constitution has so many different sources, including statute laws, common law, unwritten conventions, EU law and authoritative texts, that it is much harder for the public to understand. However... the introduction of the Cabinet Manual in 2011, and Human Rights Act (1998) has helped. The Cabinet Manual has unofficially codified many of the most important rules and conventions that the government operates by. The Human Rights Act (1998) has given UK citizens a clear and concise list of rights, which can be defended in UK courts. Despite this, the Cabinet Manual has not been approved by Parliament and does not have clear legal standing. Furthermore, the rights set out in the HRA are not fundamental law, and the UK Supreme Court cannot strike down any laws that undermine them. It is arguable that recent constitutional reforms, such as devolution and the Human Rights Act, have challenged core principles of the UK constitution, such as Parliamentary sovereignty and the unitary state, to such as extent that the UK would benefit from a new constitutional settlement. A new codified constitution would be able to make sense of many recent incomplete reforms, as well as any unintended consequences - like, for example, the West-Lothian Question. This suggests a strong case for a codified UK Constitution.

Answer 131

The US codified constitution has only been amended 27 times since 1789, with 10 of these being the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791. By contrast, the UK constitution has evolved throughout history, because of PS, allowing it to meet the changing expectations of society. Since 1997, there have been a wide range of significant constitutional reforms made in response to public pressure, such as Devolution and leaving the EU. It also allows parliament to respond quickly in times of crises. Quickly following the 1996 Dunblane Massacre, the 1997 Firearms Act passed, banning all handguns in the UK, as supported by the majority of the public. However, this flexibility could allow parliament to make significant constitutional reforms too easily. Firstly, there are debates whether the Brexit result had a strong enough mandate, with 72% turnout and such a close result (52% to 48%). Secondly, an Opinium poll has found that 42% of people who voted Leave in 2016 had a negative view on how it turned out. This suggests that the constitution is too flexible.

Answer 132

The HRA allows the SC to issue a 'declaration of incompatibility,' when laws undermine human rights. Whilst PS Means that ultimately Parliament can decide how they respond, past experience has shown that, politically, it is not easy to ignore these decorations and Parliament tends to swiftly approve whatever changes are necessary to make the law compatible. Therefore, while the UK lacks fundamental laws, the courts are able to use these rights contained in the ECHR to challenge legislation. Parliament's behaviour to HRA suggests that they view it as a fundamental law, even if legally it is the same as any other. However, these rights are not entrenched and could soon be changed by Parliament. For example, the Conservatives long had a campaign to replace the HRA with a British Bill of Rights. A codified constitution could also give the judiciary more power to protect them.

Answer 133

Explain and analyse three principles that underpin the UK constitution

Answer 134

There is no higher authority than Parliament. Parliament can change the constitutional arrangements of the state at will. The House of Lords Act (1999) swept away a thousand years of history by removing all but 92 hereditary peers. It was passed the same way as other Acts. EU membership - EC Act 1972 Parliament agreed to make itself subservient under EU law. Devolution programme saw Scotland gain primary legislative powers and tax raising powers. UK referendums, although advisory, could be said to have transferred legislative power back to the people.

Answer 135

A.V Dicey asserted that the rule of law was a central feature of any democratic state. Everyone is subject to and equal before the law; everyone is entitled to a fair trial. Courts can hold government ministers, officials to account. Citizens can take government or local authority to court. The absence of the rule of law creates an unjust system leading to arbitrary power. Arbitrary power is power without any legal basis or limits whereas the rule of law encompasses everyone in society to adhere to the law regardless of political position. Examples of judicial review: A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department (2004), the Law Lords declared that the indefinite detention of suspected terrorists at Belmarsh prison was incompatible with Article 14 of the ECHR because the Act discriminated against non-British citizens. Control orders - placing strict conditions on the liberty of suspected terrorists - within the Prevention of Terrorism Act (2005) are said by many to undermine the principle of the rule of law

Answer 136

All political power is concentrated in the centre; there is no sharing of sovereignty between elements of the state as under a federal system. Federal constitution - Exemplified by USA - Sovereignty is divided between a central government and smaller regional governments. Entirely up to parliament to decide whether to distribute power to local governments. Therefore, local governments lack sovereignty as their power can be reclaimed at anytime. In theory the UK Parliament could withdraw devolved powers and close down regional assemblies, as Margaret thatcher did to the Greater London Council, which was dissolved by the Local Government Act in 1986. Label does not fully reflect the UK's multination character. An alternative is to see the UK as a 'union' state

Answer 137

Direct Democracy - involving citizens in decision making - referendums, allowing people to present their views Representative Democracy - having elected representatives take decisions on their behalf

Answer 138

Brexit Referendum was one of the greatest democratic exercise in political history - In referendums equal weight is given to all votes, unlike representative democracy, where it is divided into constituencies for general elections where some voters live in safe seats - every vote matters - Direct democracy encourages popular participation - 2014 referendum Scottish independence - 16-17 franchise, 75% did vote. Big issues - MASSIVE turnout Develops a sense of community and responsibility - Good Friday Referendum in Northern Island paved the way for Catholics and Protestants to share power in a provenance that had been divided by a sectarian conflict for centuries.

Answer 139

- Technology has made direct democracy easier to organise - gov regularly consults online the growth of E-petitions These E-petitions - encourage actual debate - whether trump should be afforded a state visit after a petition had garnered over 1 mill votes. The Electoral Reform Society found that plebiscite such as the Scottish Independence referendum was conducted in an open and honest way with reasoned arguments - elevate the level of political discussions

Answer 140

Representatives do not do what people want them to do - Labour MP's including Claire Short still voted in favour of the Iraq war, Lib Dems voted in favour of rise in tuition fees in hopes to keep the coalition together. Poltical parties are dominated by elites - £1 billion for DUPs in 2017. But there is no 'money tree'? personal vs. national agenda. Direct democracy weakens corrupt Corruption - MP Expenses Scandal - dubious expenses- porn videos, Tony Blair exploited his connections with big businesses.

Answer 141

Not all voters get the representatives they want - FPTP means small parties are underrepresented in parlaiment. UKIP 4 m votes in 2015 with only 1 seat. Infair electoral system, decrease in participation - 59% turn out in 2015. vs, 70% for Brexit Minority groups migt not address concerns - poltiicians still seek to win over the catch all - play on fears of immigration to secure power - disallowing EU withdrawal act - guarantees of immigrant residence

Answer 142

Direct democracy undermines representative democracy through the blunt instruments of referendums - Plato feared that direct democracy would undermine the 'health and legitimacy' of representative institutions - politicians will avoid making tough decisions. Uk parliamentary instability after Brexit, two prime ministers resigned, opposition at war, 2017 election - no majority lack of accountability - the public cant be held accountable, it is impractical for large parties.

Answer 143

They can divide communities - opened and exposed divides in regions due to brexit - Scotland and England. Only 27% 18-24 voted Leave vs from 60% 65+. between class - lower vs high. Tyranny of the majority - Anti-immigrant tax increase during and after EU referendum. Polish community centre in Hammersmith was defaced with swastikas - how a minority is intimidated

Answer 144

Rep Dem does a better job at training leaders - Boris Johnson - MP, Mayor, Foreign secretary PM - product of representative democracy Representatives can become experts in their feilds - Yvette Cooper, crime and civil rights chair committee Political parties offer clear policies and beliefs - Corbyn cutting tuition fees and railway nationalisation and Tories oppose - contrasting sides but they provide COMPROMISE - amendments to bills in representative institutions. Plebocites - answers are binary.

Answer 145

encourages pluralism - elected officials make decisions as a result of the interplay between contrasting ideas and arguments in groups and organisations Minority rights are protected - Parliament have passed HRA etc. The opposition will raise clauses the government would not

Answer 146

if it is referendums vs representative - not referendums, divides, young people are alienated, minorities are threatened. Representative is not perfect, but is far better. Referendums can effect stability of parliament. However, direct democracy - epetitions, recall elections which COMPLIMENT representative democracy

Answer 147

EQ: 'evaluate the view that the media influences party success far more than party leaders or the image of political parties'

Answer 148

the media - three seperate forms of media the press, broadcast media and social media. BREAK IT DOWN BY ELECTION YEAR?The press - broadcast media has a requirement to be neutral - the press present significant images of party leaders - Daily Express is vehemently defending Boris Johnson in party-gate, strong leader, standing up to Putin. Newspaper publish opinion poll data, present policies of the parties they favour in a positive light. Gaurdian recommended Labour in 2019, Telegraph recommended Conservative. Quality of leadership - experience, decisiveness, ability to lead, positive media image the image of Boris is sullied by the party gate scandal and fines - honesty has diminished therefore the poll ratings have blown back - May election results... Trust in political parties - how are they competent in office, unified, economically responsive, trustworthy - unified/divided

Answer 149

quality of leadership - 1997, Tony Blair, perceptions of leadership contribute to party success. 43% of respondents who did not vote Labour in 2019 did not vote Labour due to Corbyn's leadership However...

Answer 150

valence and party image - 1983 and 87, Labour divided parties were heavily divided, 1997 - Tories divided over Europe vs. Blairs united new labour agenda - party unity !! - valence and trust really matters. However.. 2017 - Tory divide over Brexit - snap election - lost the majority but they did increase their vote share and then won majorityin 2019

Answer 151

Newspapers - 1997 - the Sun Backs Blair, nasty to leaders, fall from grace, 1992 - 'will the last person to leave britain please turn out the lights' about Kinnock's potential victory ... it is 'the sun wot won it' However... 2017 - Daily Mail hate spread about Corbyn the day before the election, The Sun 'don't chuck prison in the Cor-bin' BUT they had a 8% increase in vote share from 2015.. Labour utilises social media? Press media is limited - did not effect voting?

Answer 152

the Sun switched support from Labour to Tory, negative headlines about Callaghan - 'Crisis, what Crisis' - winter of discontent. Thatcher was not as popular which shows that the image of leaders did not matter and that the Sun's intervention DID matter however.. Labour had become divided and the Winter of Discontent was symbolic of this divide - they imposed austerity in the latter half of the 1970's - Bennite left vs New Labour esque divide - they wanted to ease restraints. They're reputation for economic cmpetence was damaged due to strikes - gravediggers, bin men, looses its image for running economy smoothly - challenge that media is more important for 18 years it took Labour to get back into power as they were consistantly blamed for this era of industrial unrest

Answer 153

18 years of Labour not being supported by tabloid press, but the Sun switched back - most widely read tabloid in Europe at the time - Blair became leader in early 1990s and wanted to avoid Kinnock's criticisms, wanted to appear friendly with media soundbites such as 'education, education, education' when describing his 3 priorities, APPEAL to the media, therefore improve image. He manipulated the media However... Blair's qualities? he was far more popular than Kinnock - 1992 Sheffield Rally 'we're alright' vs. Blair's relaxed communication. Also - valience issues. Labour introduced a pledge card with youth unemployment, minimum wage, and winful tax on public utilities vs. tax bombshell. Policies were recieved well - parties changed. Tories lost support after Black Wednesday when interest rates sky rocketed - sex scandals, Arms to iraq, mad cows disease and Europe. Blair vs. Dull Major - the nasty party

Answer 154

2010 - first national tv debate!! 'clegg-mania' and Gordon Brown did NOT - press had already turned against due to credit crunch and the expenses scandal, Brown's turned on mic- describing a voter as 'bigotted' as he demonstrated awkwardness, - may well have affected the fortunes. 2017 and 2019 - use of social media by the Labour party in 2017 allowed Corbyn to aviod negative press headlines. Momentum's videos doing well tuition fees ads - Andrew Neill interview in 2019 - did not apologise for antisemitism REALLY damaged standings vs. Johnsons campaign in 2019 - relied on publicity stunts... poor media performances are punished but... press isn't - but the Lib Dems LOST SEATS. the credit crunch - labour was blamed, weak regulation on banks, lost it's trust in the economy. No economic trust until NOW with Keir Starmer due to the Tories handling of the cost of living crisis. Valience issue of economic issues are BACK in 2022. In 2010, it is the TRUST in political parties. 2017-19 - BREXIT - pulled out of marginal seats, more United 2019 Tory party - won? 43% dislike of Corbyn flipped the red wall seats, Valence issues - 2017 manifesto vs. 2019 - 'policy incontinece' by Labour insider - free broadband - centrist wing at war with Left wing - party divides play a role

Answer 155

PARA 1: Pluralism

Answer 156

Pressure groups can seen as contributing to pluralist democracy in the UK as they allow different sections of society to voice their opinions to government Sectional groups campaign for the interest of their members Includes professional associations - BMA represents 160,000 medical professionals - acts as a trade union for doctors, aiming to improve pay and conditions Causal groups are more altruistic -campaigning for a particular issue that does not necessarily affect its members Charities like Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and groups like Greenpeace

Answer 157

pressure groups provide the government with information and statistics that it might not otherwise consider, to influence their decision making in the best interests of members The Automobile Association provides research and reports for the Department for Transport - pursuading the government to increase the severity of punishment for moterists using thier phone BMA are consulted by the Department of Healthy over policy matters However... only well researched and insider status groups are able to inform government - potentially elitist? wealtheir gropes gave a distroportionate ability to pursuade government

Answer 158

allow citizens to participate in the political system at any time unlike election years. Public can focus on issues important to them - which might not be thier primary concern in a GE. Environmental record - Greenpeace scrutinise gov over issues that may not decide an election but are still important Client Earth (activist environmental lawyers) - won their third legal victory against UK government in 2018 against their air pollution policy Memberships for PG are bigger than parties - Conservative Party 190,000 vs. 1 million for RSPB

UK ESSAY PLANS Flashcards

(183 cards)