Liberalism Flashcards
What does John Locke believe about human nature?
- Humans are rational beings, guided by self-interest.
- As rational beings people realise that co-operation with others is in their own best interests.
What does John Rawls believe about human nature?
- Saw the empathetic side of human nature to a greater degree than earlier liberal thinkers.
- Saw humans as self-interested but also concerned about the welfare of those around them.
What does Betty Friedan believe about human nature?
- Women and men are equally capable, however society has conditioned women to think of themselves as inferior.
What does John Locke believe about the society?
- Society predates the state = government by consent
-In the ‘state of nature’ there are natural rights and laws which derive from humans’ rational nature, e.g. the right to own property.
What does John Rawls believe about society?
- Put forward a ‘thought experiment’ arguing that if individuals had to choose a society from behind a ‘veil of ignorance’, they would choose a fairer, more equal society, which ensured equality of opportunity.
What does Betty Friedan believe about society?
-Traditional society has conditioned women to adopt certain gender roles, e.g. childcare and home-making.
-This cultural conditioning has been communicated through social channels eg. media and must be challenged.
What does John Locke believe about the state
-The state exists as the result of a ‘social contract’ between citizens and the government.
-The legitimacy of the state derives from the ‘government by consent’.
- mechanist theory = people are capable of forming a state that reflects their needs instead of an authoritarian state
- Argues limited government, laissez-faire economics
What does John Rawls believe about the state?
-He was a strong advocate of the enabling state, arguing that intervention is necessary in order to create equality of opportunity
- Government should support people from ‘cradle to grave’
- this allows people to get positive freedom = the ability to achieve
What does Betty Friedan believe about the state?
-The state is male-dominated but is capable of change if people can be educated to realise the fundamental equality of men and women.
-The state should pass laws to bring about greater equality. - affirmative action is necessary
What does John Locke believe about the economy?
-Property ownership is the basis of the economy and individuals should be free to trade in the pursuit of their own interests.
-The state should protect property rights
What does John Rawls believe about the economy?
- Comfortable with the capitalist economy alongside state intervention to ensure poorer citizens can have equality of opportunity (but not equality of outcome).
What does Betty Friedan believe about the economy?
- Women are capable of making significant contributions to the capitalist economy if they are freed up by new laws to overcome the historical gender bias.
What type of liberalists were the 5 key thinkers?
JS Mill = later classical liberalism
Betty Friedan = Modern liberalism
Mary Wollstonecraft = early classical liberalism
John Locke =
John Rawls =modern liberalism
What does John Locke argue about egotistical individualism?
- Humans are naturally drawn to the advancements of their own and the pursuit of their own happiness
What do neo-liberalists believe about keynesianism economics?
- we need an economic system that requires government involvement to achieve full employment and price stability
- readvertised negative freedom and minimal state
What is neo-liberalism?
a modified form of liberalism tending to favor free-market capitalism.
What is the Beveridge Report?
What does neo-liberalist Hayek say about this?
- 1942
- talked about the state supporting the people from cradle to grave
- Hayek said this was a form of state paternalism
What is Social Darwinism?
The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle.
What is equality of opportunity?
- all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall
Why do social liberals put forward positive freedom?
positive freedom = enlarged state where the most vulnerable in society can be protected
Why do classical liberals such as T.H Green put forward negative freedom?
negative freedom = harm principle and limited role of the state.
How can limitations on individual freedom be justified?
Locke’s social contract theory - Gov can act on behalf of the people because they chose them.
Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism - actions are morally right if they tend to promote happiness or pleasure, actions therefore limited are in benefit for society by the state
TH Green’s negative freedom - laws to prevent discrimination, FGM etc are good even though they limit freedom
Rawls view on the individual freedom
he argued that the individual rights, freedoms and beliefs of each person must be respected. Therefore, approaches such as utilitarianism (the greatest happiness for the greatest number) are flawed. Excessive inequality should therefore be avoided, as it harms the poorest in society
Friedan view on individual freedom
She wished to reform society so that women were able to easily choose either a career or a domestic role, depending on what they wanted. This would result in true equal rights. Any laws which prevented this should be repealed.
Locke view on individual freedom
concepts of ‘natural’ rights, that everyone is entitled to by virtue of being human, and natural laws, and suggested that governments derive legitimacy from the people, so should respect the people’s natural rights.
What did Locke believe about the state?
The state must be representative, based on consent (government by consent)
What did Locke believe society?
Society predates the state- a ‘state of nature’
What is the ‘state of nature’?
A life where men and women functioned without government, written laws, or any formal restraints
What did Locke believe about the ‘state of nature’?
Locke believed that because people are rational, they would be respectful of others in a state of nature, and therefore without a government there would be peace and harmony
Why did Locke believe the state was necessary?
Locke firmly believed that we need a state to protect our freedom and property- a stateless society is one in which we would be devoid of freedom “where laws do not exist, man has no freedom.”
What did Locke believe that the role of the state was? (2)
The role of the state is to protect individual property and to prevent chaos and anarchy
What was the mechanical theory, and how did it apply to Locke?
This is the theory that Locke supported- which said that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs
What is the ‘social contract’ and what does it create? (locke)
The social contract outlines that the state is obliged to protect its citizens whilst citizens in turn must accept the laws of the land (creates a government by consent)
How do individuals consent to a government? (2)
- Formal- the government seeks a mandate from the people during a nationwide election, so it is legitimate
- Informal- consent could be taken as assumed from the general behaviour of the people and the absence of major social disorder
What did Locke believe about the economy?
Individuals have a ‘natural right’ to private property, and the state should respect
When are individuals entitled to withdraw their consent for the government?
If the state were to act in violation of the contract, the people are entitled to withdraw their consent
Name one of Locke’s work, and what it outlined:
The Two Treatises of Government 1632-1704- outlined the need for a state to protect individual rights and property
What did J.S. Mills believe that the role of the state was, and what did he believe that the state was not to do?
Mill believed that the role of the state is to prevent harm to others, and not to interfere for an individuals ‘own good’
When did J.S. Mills believe that people can be held accountable to society?
When their actions have concerned/harmed others
Wat type of liberty did J.S. Mills believe in, and what was this?
Negative liberty- freedom from interference by other people (individuals should be left alone, to pursue their destiny)
What types of actions did J.S. Mills accept, and what were these?
Self-regarding actions- actions that affects no one other/doesn’t interfere with anyone other than the agent
What did J.S. Mills believe about diverse ideas, and why did he believe this?
Mills argued that diverse ideas should be tolerated- because this tolerance would ensure that new ideas emerged, and that all opinions would be heard via a rational debate, in order to avoid a tyranny of the majority
What did J.S. Mills believe about human nature?
Mills believed that human nature isn’t fixed and that humans are never the ‘finished article’- there’s always room for improvement and room for progression
Why was J.S. Mills concerned about the government by consent?
Mills was concerned that a ‘government by consent’ would be compromised if the wishes of some individual citizens were overwhelmed by the wishes of most individuals
What did J.S. Mills believe about society?
Mills believed that the best societies were ones were individuality co-existed with tolerance (heavy emphasis on a society and individualism)
What did J.S. Mills believe about individualism?
Mills believed in developmental individualism
What is developmental individualism?
This is a type of individualism which focuses on what humans could become, rather than what they had become- allows individuals’ potential to progress
Why did Mills believe in developmental individualism?
Mills believed in developmental individualism because he thought that man was progressive, and would therefore want to seek out higher pleasures e.g. arts
What does developmental individualism, and therefore Mills, favour and why?
Developmental individualism favours universal and widespread education, as these would promote political education and opportunities for enlightening debate
What did J.S. Mills believe about the state?
The state should be minimal, but should provide essential welfare services (e.g. education) and some level of wealth distribution, in order to proceed towards a representative democracy
Why did J.S. Mills believe in a representative democracy?
As Mills believed in developmental individualism, he believed that universal education was necessary for human progression, and that this level of education would lead to the enlarged electorate electing liberally minded representatives to make decisions for them
Why didn’t J.S. Mills believe in a direct democracy?
`Mills believed a direct democracy would create tyranny of the majority
Who didn’t Mills believe should be able to vote, and why?
Paupers, bankrupts, illiterates and non-tax payers- as they weren’t well-educated enough to pick intelligent representatives
What did J.S. Mills believe about the economy?
Mills believed that laissez-faire capitalism was essential for progress and individualism
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about human nature?
She believed human beings were rational and guided by reason- both men and women
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about women’s equality, and what did she believe this did?
Wollstonecraft believed that women’s equality was being denied and that this went against the core ideas of liberalism- equality for all
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about women’s liberty, and what did she believe this would result in?
Females were denied their liberty, which left society vulnerable
What was, according to Mary Wollstonecraft, suppressing women’s liberties? (3)
- Women were rarely allowed land ownership or employment,
- they couldn’t vote for those who governed them
- and once married, women also had little legal protection against marital violence
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about education?
She believed it should be accessible to all
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe had caused women to fall into a position where their liberty etc. was denied? (2)
- Women have a ‘neglected education’, which renders them weak and retched, as they have to gather knowledge from books written by men
- Women are seen by men to be ‘alluring objects’
Name one of Mary Wollstonecraft’s work:
‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about the state?
She believed the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about the economy?
She believed that once liberated, women would energise the free-market economy
What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about society?
She believed that as society ‘infantilized’ women, it stifled female individualism
What did Betty Friedan believe about human nature?
Human nature has evolved in such a way that it has discouraged the self-advancement of women
What did Betty Friedan believe about the state? (+ what type of state)
She believed that the state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against females (positive discrimination) -an enabling state
What is positive discrimination, and what individual promoted its use?
Positive discrimination is where a group, that has been known to have been discriminated against, is favoured- Friedan
How did Friedan say positive discrimination could be achieved, and what would this do?
Through a national education programme which would give women subsidies and childcare- to allow them to continue their education on a part-time basis
What type of liberal is Betty Friedan, and what does this mean?
Friedan is a social liberalist- which means that she believed that the state should take steps to enable women to progress (an enabling state and affirmative action)
What did Betty Friedan believe about society? (what had society caused?)
Friedan argued that the illiberal attitude in society which condemned women to underachievement, despite them being just as capable as men in terms of performing any type of work or career path
What did Betty Friedan believe about the economy?
Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if coupled with legislation
What did John Rawls believe about human nature?
Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty an the plight of those around them
What did John Rawls believe about the state? (+what type of state)
The state should enable the less fortunate individuals to advance, via public spending and services (an enabling state)
What did John Rawls believe about society?
Society should be revolved around improving the condition of the poorest
What did John Rawls believe about the economy?
Free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens
In liberalism, what type of approach does the state have to the economy
A laissez-faire approach (non-governmental interference)
What did John Rawls believe the state should do to aid the less fortunate?
Redistribute wealth
What is the general liberal belief about human nature?
Humans have logic, calculation and deduction, and can therefore function peacefully without a state- but are naturally egotistical
What is the general liberal belief about the state and economy?
Liberals believe a laissez faire government and capitalism is suitable for society
Liberals believe in equality of…
Opportunity
What do classical liberals believe about the state?
It should be minimal- they are opposed to an expansion in the role of the state
What places classical liberalism under threat?
The industrial revolution- the working class developed class consciousness
What were modern liberals against?
Free-market capitalism, as they believed this had led to many individuals not being free
What type of economy do modern liberals prefer?
Keynesian economics- a mixed economy
What type of freedom did modern liberals believe in, and what was this?
Positive freedom- the state enabling people and allowing them to obtain the ability to push themselves and progress
Name two classical liberals:
Locke and Mill
What role did classical liberals believe the state should have?
Classical liberalists argue that the role of the state should be strictly limited to maintaining law and order and securing society from invasion
What type of society did Locke and Mill believe would be beneficial for society?
Locke and Mill- individuals thrive best in a society with a small, limited state where they can enjoy negative freedom with minimal interference
Why did Rawls and Green disagree with negative freedom?
They argued that negative freedom exacerbates societal inequalities as the state does nothing to help the disadvantaged individual
What type of state do modern liberals prefer?
An enabling state
Name three modern liberal policies, and why they were modern liberal:
- New Deal- maximum state intervention, to restore the economy- rather than let it fix itself after the economic depression and unemployment
- The Beveridge Report- created the NHS and a welfare state (an enabling state)
What type of equality did Rawls believe in, and what was this?
Foundational equality- individuals needed equality under the law and constitution, as well as socially and economically, to ensure that all lives could be rich and fulfilled
How did Rawls believe that foundational equality could be achieved?
Significant redistribution of wealth via an enabling state, with extensive public spending and progressive taxation
What is Keynesian economics and how is it a liberal policy?
Keynesian Economics focuses on using active government policy to manage aggregate demand in order to address or prevent economic recessions- requires an enabling state
What is social liberalism?
The belief that society can be improved through liberalism, and that there should be economic and social state intervention- the state should legislate on these issues
What is the main belief of social liberalists?
A belief in tolerance
What type of economy do neo-liberalists tend to favour?
Free-market capitalist economy, with low taxation and low public spending
What type of state do neo-liberalists tend to favour? (+ phrase)
Minimal state- ‘rolling back the frontiers’
What is neo-liberalism?
A type of liberalism which favours a minimal state and free-market economy (laissez-faire)
What is a free-market economy?
An unregulated economy, where there is minimal state interference into the market- the market is left to function on its own and without regulation
Liberals have an … view of human nature
Liberals have an … view of human nature
What is the harm principle, and how does it apply to liberalism?
The harm principle holds that the actions of individuals should only be limited to prevent harm to other individuals- liberals use this as a measure of the role of the state (J.S. Mills)
What did Green believe that the role of the state should be?
The role of the state should be at a maximum (enabling state)- and should be exercised to relieve poverty and to develop individuals
What did Green argue about the state?
Green argued that without state intervention into e.g. housing, education and health, then society would remain to be unfair and unjust
John locke believes about the human nature
- humans: rational, guided by self-interest
- rationalism: innate quality for individuals - individuals develop best when left alone free to pursue their own happiness
- egotistical individualism: humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of selfish interests but as humans are rational this doesn’t lead to conflict to others
- e.g. social contract - governing must have consent of governed e.g. Fixed Term Parliament Act 2011
John Locke’s views on the state
- must be representative, based on consent of governed
- night-watchman role, justified by negative freedom
- state intervention only justified to prevent actions that are harmful to others - allows individuals to follow the good life
- state of nature: humans born in a state of equality and freedom with natural rights to life, liberty and property. ‘State of law’ resolves disputes more efficiently than under state of nature
- e.g. free market policies - deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
John Locke’s views on society
- society predates the state: ‘natural’ societies with natural laws and rights
- individuals self-seeking and independent but constrained by rational nature - they respect the rights of others so their own rights are respected in turn
- e.g. education policies prioritize access to quality education, promote critical thinking skills & encourage engagement - highlights role of education in cultivating an enlightened society e.g. Pupil Premium - funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools
John Locke’s views on the economy
- state policy should respect ‘natural right’ to private property & arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade & resources
- state’s only role is to protect property & enforce contracts
- market should be left to guide rational individuals
- e.g. free market/trade - no subsidies, taxes or regulations - e.g. deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on human nature
- rationalism defines both genders: the Enlightenment’s optimistic analysis of human nature should apply to all humans
- 18th century England, society & state implied women were not rational and thus denied them individual freedom & formal equality
- e.g. women not allowed land ownership or paid employment & sacrificed little individualism to become wives with little legal protection against domestic violence & no divorce laws
- e.g. Domestic Abuse Act 2021
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on the state
- the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights
- formal equality must be accorded to all individuals - supported French Revolution’s emphasis upon ‘citizens’ and its indifference to gender differences
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action - promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on society
- society ‘infantilised’ women, thus stifling female individualism
- by fettering female individualism, England was limiting their stock intelligence, wisdom and morality
- “such arrangements are not conditions where reason and progress may prosper”
- e.g. political empowerment through gender quotas & all-women shortlists used by Labour and Lib Dems
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on the economy
- a free market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women
- aligned with Adam Smith’s laissez-faire economics
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action - promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
John Stuart Mill’s views on human nature
- human nature is not fixed - forever progressing to a higher level - liberty was not just a ‘natural right’ but the engine of ongoing human development
- focus on what individuals could become - known as ‘individuality’ or ‘developmental individualism’
- harm principle: state should tolerate all actions & opinions unless it harms the liberty of other individuals - ‘self-regarding :)’ vs ‘other regarding :(‘ actions
- negative freedom: freedom was the absence of restraint
- e.g. civil liberties protection such as freedom of speech, assembly and religion are all codified in the first amendment of the US Constitution
John Stuart Mill’s views on the state
- consensus via education: education provides the means through which the interests of society’s minorities can be reconciled
- the principle of ‘government by consent’ would be compromised if the interests of some liberal-minded individuals were denied by the votes of most uneducated voters - ‘tyranny of the majority’
- e.g. education reform - Pupil Premium - funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools - role of education in cultivating an enlightened society
John Stuart Mill’s views on society
- the best society is one where ‘individuality’ coexists with tolerance and self-improvement
- individuals rely on societies that tolerate their individualism
- greater enlightenment will produce greater tolerance and consensus
- e.g. proportional representation in electoral systems e.g. STV provides greater, fair representation to minority viewpoints
John Stuart Mill’s views on the economy
- laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise & individual initiative
- property facilitated individualism - property is a crucial vehicle for self-realisation and self-determination
- unequal outcomes are consistent with a ‘meritocratic’ society that encourages individualism and rewards those who have earned their advantages
- e.g. free market/trade - no subsidies, taxes or regulations - e.g. deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
John Rawls’ views on human nature
- mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty & the plight of those around them
- veil of ignorance: if individuals did not know the sort of people they would be in a society (white/ethnic minority, rich/poor etc.) rational humans would choose a society where the poorest members fared better than in present society
- government by consent - individuals endorse this ‘fairer’ society
- e.g. Beveridge Report 1942 providing post-war welfare state through unemployment benefits, food assistance programs, housing support etc. “from cradle to grave”
John Rawls’ views on the state
- conditions of the poor should be improved by the state
- the gap between richest and poorest shouldn’t necessarily be narrowed
- enlarged, ‘enabling’ state: significant redistribution of wealth via extensive public spending & progressive taxation
- extended state so its activities liberate individuals from social and economic problems, enabling them to fulfil their potential
- representative democracy rather than direct democracy
- e.g. universal healthcare e.g. formation of the NHS in 1948 & Obama’s Affordable Healthcare Act 2010: stemmed from a belief that individual liberty can be obstructed by economic factors
John Rawls’ views on society
- the society most rational individuals would choose would be one where the condition of the poorest would improve
- veil of ignorance: if individuals did not know the sort of people they would be in a society (white/ethnic minority, rich/poor etc.) rational humans would choose a society where the poorest members fared better than in present society
- the original position: individuals construct a society they feel would be superior to their current one
- e.g. Beveridge Report 1942 providing post-war welfare state through unemployment benefits, food assistance programs, housing support etc. “from cradle to grave”
John Rawls’ views on the economy
- free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens
- expansion of state spending to overcome the ‘five giants’ cited by the Beveridge Report needed to be financed by taxation
a sufficient yield could only be assured by the steady economic growth promised by Keynesianism - Keynesian capitalism: state directing & managing market forces to ensure steady growth, full employment & greater individual liberty
- e.g. progressive taxation: redistributing wealth and resources to provide equality of opportunity to benefit disadvantaged individuals
Betty Friedan’s views on human nature
- human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women
- concern for individualism: all individuals should seek self-determination and the realisation of their potential but gender is a serious hindrance to women
- e.g. paid family leave policies: allow both men and women to take time off work for newborns promotes gender equality in caregiving responsibilities - traditional gender roles often limit women’s opportunities
Betty Friedan’s views on the state
- state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against female individualism
- disdained violence/illegality as a means of pursuing change & argued that significant progress was possible via the procedures of a liberal state
- state’s role in promoting tolerance should be extended further to illegalise racial and sexual discrimination
- this tolerant society could be ‘psychologically embedded’ by the state via bureaucratic agencies with an ‘educational’ function
- e.g. Human Rights Act 1998 & Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & prohibits gender discrimination, providing legal recourses for women, aligning with her advocacy for equality & fairness
Betty Friedan’s views on society
- society remains chauvinistic towards women but women are complicit in their repression
- it is illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature that condemns women to under-achievement
- ‘cultural channels’: chauvinistic attitudes are nurtured & transmitted via society’s cultural channels (schools, religion, media, literature, theatre & cinema)
- these channels of ‘cultural conditioning’ leave many women convinced that their lot in life is determined by ‘iron laws’ rather than their own rationality & enterprise
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - equality duties on schools (race, disability and gender) to eliminate discrimination and advance equality of opportunity shows importance of education in empowering women and challenging traditional gender roles
Betty Friedan’s views on the economy
- free market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action (‘positive discrimination’): e.g. all-women shortlists to promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
Agree on the role of the state
- should promote individualism and freedom
- The state is necessary yet has the potential to be evil
- should treat people equally
- should be a liberal democracy
disagree on the role of that state
- Night watchmen state vs enabling state
- government by consent vs full democracy
- greater government intervention (ML) vs Limited government intervention
agree on the role of the economy
- support for capatalism
- inequality holds back women
disagree on the role of the economy
- laissez faire vs keynesian
- CL believes capitalism creates a meritocracy whereas ML believe it does but requires some state intervention on top of it.
agree on the role of society
- should promote tolerance
- should promote equality and social justice
- promote individualism.
Disagree on the role of society
- CL want negative freedom vs ML want positive freedom
- CL believes in egotistical individualism whereas ML believe in developmental individualism and enabling state
- Cl = formal equality , ML = equality of opportunity and enabling state
agree on human nature
- support for rationalism and individualism
- optimistic view on human nature
- belief people have natural rights
disagree on human nature
- egotistical individualism vs developmental
- positive vs negative freedom
