Comparative essay plans

Question 1

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the concept of federalism influences the US government

Answer 1

• Laws are different in each state (more autonomy given to states in certain areas e.g. Roe v Wade, means federal government cannot control them)
• Government will take more power from the states in times of crisis (e.g. COVID-19, this influences the federal government to increase federal power)
• Open to interpretation (can vary depending on Presidents, Democrat presidents will usually prefer less federalism, republican presidents will favour more)

Question 2

Explain and analyse 3 roles performed by congressional committees

Answer 2

• Question judicial appointments (Senate standing committees hearings are a test of the nominee’s suitability and the vote reflects the chamber’s vote.

Senate Judiciary Committee refused to hear Merrick Garland in 2016.)

• Select committees (policy specific committees, made up of both parties, select committees deal with a specific urgent issue - most are temporary, but the House and Senate Permanent Select Committees on Intelligence aren’t.

Jan 6 Committee found that Trump incited violence.)

• House rules committee (standing committee, prioritise bills in Congress, made up of different parties,
  Conference committees are temporary committees where members from relevant standing committees come together to merge two bills.

Only 7 used in the 115th Congress compared to 67 in the 104th.)

Question 3

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the US political system encourages pressure group activity

Answer 3

• many access points (clear sep of powers, NAACP and SC)
• constitutional rights (freedom of speech and protest, pressure groups have limited restrictions)
• weak US party system (increased partisanship, brotherhood of teamsters represent labourers- feel more connected)

Question 4

Explain and analyse 3 principles of the US constitution

Answer 4

• limited government (lack of state intervention, US culture strongly rests on individualism- however in times of crisis this may not be favourable)
• checks and balances (on each of the 3 branches of government, e.g. congress can impeach the president)
• separation of powers (each branch is independent, UK is more fusion with the PM being in the exec, good scrutiny)

Question 5

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which rational theory could be used to study voting behaviour in the US

Answer 5

rational theory, proposed by jean blondel suggests that individuals act in a self interested way, which is the reason for the way things turn out

• social factors (age, gender, religion)
• non voting/absentation (2016 election turnout of just 59%, 66% in 2020)
• issue voting (e.g. on the economy)

Question 6

Explain and analyse 3 policy differences between the republicans and democrats

Answer 6

• Abortion (republicans pro life, overturning of Roe v Wade)
• taxes (democrats favour low taxes, welfare state, Obamacare)
• marriage (republicans against same sex marriage, religious views)

Question 7

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which cultural theory could be used to study pressure groups in the UK and USA

Answer 7

cultural theory, proposed by almond and verba, refers to the differing histories of the countries and how this has affected the political tone- also suggests people will shared beliefs and ideology will act together

• Pressure groups in the USA and UK have the same fundamental aims (influence public policy, however they operate in different political systems + constitutional arrangements)
• Pressure groups are a means of participation (shared beliefs and ideologies in both, US has guaranteed constitutional rights, us has a pluralist society so much more accepted)
• Methods used are similar (lobbying- however in extreme cases will resort to direct action e.g. BLM, Greenpeace, idea that wealthy groups use donations)

Question 8

Explain and analyse 3 reasons why the USA might be described as having a two party system

Answer 8

• Only Republicans and Democrats have ever been Presidents (this has existed since the 19th century, presidency usually alternates (give example of 2 presidents)
• People in the USA feel aligned to one of the two main political parties (strong partisanship, can be seen in Congress- however pressure groups)
• 3rd parties struggle to get into Congress (due to FPTP system, even if individuals did vote for them they have no chance, people will vote for either R or D)

Question 9

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the Bill of Rights protects civil rights and liberties in the USA

Answer 9

• Part of US constitution (means they are codified and entrenched, very difficult to change which makes them protected)
• Supreme Court (judicial review, can strike down legislation that is incompatible with the Bill of Rights, however judges are unelected- do they have too much power?)
• Content of bill of rights (explicitly states what each branch of government should do, stops a branch from becoming too powerful e.g. 1st amendment is directed at Congress- can’t promote a single religion)

Question 10

Explain and analyse 3 ways that structural theory could be used to study the selection of members of the US and UK Supreme Courts

Answer 10

structural theory, proposed by talcott parsons, suggests that the end results can be explained by the differing machinery of government, institutions and processes

• Independent appointments in UK (used to be law lords, however now is non politicised, US is politicised)
• Role of the Senate (confirm judicial appointments, can also deny e.g. Ketanji Brown Jackson- the most recent judge nominated by Biden, in the UK parliament are not involved)
• Lots of experience required in the UK (judges work their way up and gain valuable experience, US don’t explicitly need experience)

Question 11

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which Congress can check the president

Answer 11

• Can override a presidential veto, (e.g. Bush Jr had 4 vetoes overridden, shows how Congress can stop a president from becoming too powerful)
• Can impeach President (this allows them to hold the President to account, has only been successful once - Andrew Johnson 1868)
• Can confirm/deny presidential appointments (power of the Senate, can accept and deny SC and cabinet nominations, such as 1989, John Tower under George Bush

Question 12

Explain and analyse 3 ways structural theory could be used to study the constitutions of the UK and USA

Answer 12

Definition: structural theory, proposed by talcott parsons, suggests that end results can be explained by he different machinery of government, its institutions and processes

• Codified in the USA, uncodified in the UK (all written in a single document in the USA, citizens are aware of their rights and how the country operates)
• Not entrenched in the UK, entrenched in the USA (in the USA, citizen’s rights are set in stone and difficult to change, UK rights are not set in stone)
• Constitution is sovereign in the USA, not in the UK (Parliament is sovereign in the UK, sole authority - whereas in the US the constitution is the ultimate authority)

Question 13

Explain and analyse 3 ways cultural theory could be used to study the constitutions of the UK and USA

Answer 13

• US constitution is the product of a revolution (breaking away from British rule, codification is to ensure no tyranny and explicitly states who should do what0
• Individualistic culture in the USA (UK is more collective, focus on collective rights whereas in the US citizens like to be aware of their rights, entrenched nature)
• Federalism v Devolution (federalism was written inti the constitution, reflects diverse nature of the country, devolution is only a product of evolution)

Question 14

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which rational theory can be used to study how US HoR members and UK HoC members work

Answer 14

• Both have the intention of representing their constituents/ community (US HoR and MP’s have similar roles)
• UK MPs may not vote in line with their constituency due to whips (USA- party whips are not common)
• US HoR more likely to work with their constituents (they are up for election every 2 years, as opposed to every 4/5 in the UK)

Question 15

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which structural theory could be used to study the legislative process in the UK and US

Answer 15

• In the US, legislation goes through concurrently (this means at the same time, a bill will go through both houses- can lead to gridlock)
• In the UK, the bill is signed by the monarch (royal assent + head of state, more of a tradition, in the US, presidents sign off, however can leave bills to expire)
• Senate and Lords can’t propose money bills (HoR and HoC have the ‘power of the purse’, gives them more autonomy as they are more representative of constituents)

Question 16

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the president can influence foreign policy

Answer 16

• Can propose treaties (SALT 1972, can promote peace, however has to be ratified and approved by the Senate so hasn’t got complete autonomy e.g. Treaty of Versailles was rejected in 1920)
• Commander-in-chief (head of the armed forces, can deploy/withdraw troops without the permission of Congress e.g. Biden in 2021, withdrawing troops from Afghanistan)
• Head of State (can go on visits to other countries to manage relations e.g. Nixon visiting China and Russia in 1972, more recently Trump visiting Korea and standing on the border of North and South)

Question 17

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the president may use his cabinet

Answer 17

• Exchanging information (cabinet meetings provide opportunities for information giving and gathering e.g. Carer used to go round the room clockwise)
• Monitoring Congress (can check up on legislation going through Congress e.g. Obama in 2015 used cabinet meetings to discuss his policy agenda for the year)
• Debating policy (Reagan’s cabinet ministers have described them as vigorous- presidents can use this time to hear concerns e.g. building a Russian pipeline under Reagan)

Question 18

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which structural theory could be used to study cabinet appointments in the USA and UK

Answer 18

• Serving members of the legislature in the USA cannot be part of the cabinet (executive is separate from the legislature, strict separation of powers in the constitution )
• In the US cabinet members must be confirmed (the Senate has the power to confirm/reject appointments e.g. Senate accepted Anthony Blinken as SoS in Jan 2021)
• In the US experience is considered (UK, cabinet members are appointed not based off experience e.g. Steve Barclay is SoS for health but has no medical background, in the US SoD is an ex army member)

Question 19

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which structural theory could be used to study the US President’s and the UK Prime Minister’s relationship with their respective party

Answer 19

• In the UK, PM is leader of their party (has a close relationship with them, automatically assumes the role of PM when elected, in the US the President is elected separately- not as close)
• PM is part of the legislature and executive (has a majority in Parliament, strong relationship with party, however in the US President can be a different party to the HoR or the Senate)
• Both PM and Presidents appoint their own party to cabinet (Rishi Sunak has an all Conservative cabinet, Joe Biden has a Democrat cabinet- however coalition)

Question 20

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the Supreme Court could be regarded as a political institution

Answer 20

• Appointment process is politicised (most recent appointment was Ketanji Brown Jackson- is liberal and was appointed by Joe Biden, aimed to get his views in)
• Rule on political cases (e.g. Trump v Hawaii 2018, voted to uphold his executive order which banned people from 8 countries entering the USA)
• Appointments are confirmed by the Senate (vote along party lines- hardly ever see Republicans voting for Democrat justices, but RBG 1993 was elected with 93-7)

Question 21

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which affirmative action has been successful

Answer 21

• Increasing amount of minority students at university (using methods such as quotas e.g. University of Texas, however in 2016 in UoT v Fisher, this race consideration was declared unconstitutional)
• Given black American community hope (the election of Obama in 2008 showed that people voting for someone based off policy not skin colour)
• Has helped reverse decades of discrimination (racially mixed schools, workplaces, end to segregation however this has not reversed the centuries of discrimination faced)

Question 22

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which structural theory could be used to study the US and UK Supreme Courts

Answer 22

• Both separate branches of government (UK supreme court was made independent via the CRA 2005, US SC has been established since 1789)
• Appointment process differs (US is a very politicised appointment, whereas the UK has an independent appointments commission)
• US SC judges are in for life (UK SC judges have to resign at 75 e.g. Lady Hale, whereas you can stay as long as you’d like in the US e.g. RBG 2020 death)

Question 23

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which cultural theory could be used to study the protection of rights in the USA and UK

Answer 23

• Legacy of slavery in the USA (has promoted greater protection of rights, especially in minority groups- 14th amendment abolished slavery)
• US has distinctive features (gun control is at the forefront of the political stage- 2nd amendment, so this right is well protected)
• US has an individualistic culture (rise in populism, UK has a much more collective culture, codified constitution aids this culture in the US)

Question 24

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which the process for selecting presidential candidates is open to criticism

Answer 24

• Requires lots of money (campaign spending is very large- Clinton raised $275 million in 2016- means candidates have to start fundraising early making the process very long)
• Process is too dominated by the media (decisions about candidates used to be made by a small portion of experts- now people must rely on media e.g. Fox News)
• Incumbent has lots more power (E.g Barack Obama in 2010 had a much larger advantage in the primary process as he had name recognition, and a good reputation- unfair)

Question 25

Explain and analyse 3 important roles still played by the national party conventions

Answer 25

• Party unity (relieves some of the personal battles fought at primaries e.g. Sanders closing speech at the Democrat convention- important that internal divides are mended before elections)
• Enthusing the party faithful (loyal supporters in every election- it is vital to gain their enthusiasm as they are the people who will be campaigning on local levels- Michelle Obama hoping Clinton- but still lost)
• Post convention bounce (show the immediate effects of the convention- similar to an opinion poll, Bill Clinton had the biggest bounce by 16 percentage points (average was 6)- Biden did not get this)

Question 26

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which cultural theory could be used to study the differences between the elections and electoral systems of the USA and UK

Answer 26

• 1st amendment and campaign finance (protects freedom of speech, campaign finance restriction in 2002 put pressure on this, may be unconstitutional)
• Both historically democratic (FPTP system is used in both the US and UK- candidate with the most votes wins the congressional seat/constituency)
• Electoral college in the US (this is a system used to ensure fair results- framed by the founding fathers, UK do not have a similar system and the PM is leader of the largest party)

Question 27

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which cultural theory could be used to study the party make-up of the US House of Representatives and the UK House of Commons

Answer 27

• Strong two party system in the US (historically has been either Republicans or Democrats- people vote for one or the other)
• Importance of 3rd parties (especially during Brexit this was important- UKIP, US has no 3rd parties present in the House of Representatives)
• Lots of factions in the US (e.g. tea party movement, parties ae much more centralised in the UK, and less factions are present in the HoC)

Question 28

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which class and education played a significant role in the 2016 elections

Answer 28

• Trump’s campaign targeted the ‘Reagan Democrats’ (these are blue collar workers, working class from the Rust belt- the heart of America’s industry)
• 71% of white male non college voted Trump (shows how the less educated one is, the more likely they are to vote for the Republican Party)
• College graduates (more likely to vote for Clinton, however 48% still voted for Donald Trump- shows how class now makes less of a difference in elections)

Question 29

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which 3rd parties can play an important role in US elections

Answer 29

• Can contribute to defeats (Reform party of the US- won 19% of the vote in 1992 and contributed to George Bush Senior’s defeat- shows huge influence)
• Can influence policy (can lose elections but act more like a pressure group, for example the Green Party can have large effects on election campaigns and policy)
• Important for state level elections (e.g. Alaska and New York have influential 3rd parties who can play a significant role in state and local races)

Question 30

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which pressure groups can enhance democracy in the US

Answer 30

• Pluralism (allow for a dispersal of power between groups rather than it being concentrated in the hands of few governmental branches)
• Allow minority views to be represented (e.g. NAACP represents the voices of black people, are very influential regarding judiciary- Brown v Board of education 1954)
• Allow greater participation (people with shared views can campaign together e.g. NRA, people in the USA really value election participation)

Question 31

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which pressure groups can seek to influence Congress

Answer 31

• Lobbying Congressional committees (standing committees are particularly influential, pressure groups like to ‘start from the bottom’, may also target the chairs of the committees)
• Organising constituents (for exam, writing to their member of Congress, in 2016 1,500 pressure groups organised a joint-letter writing campaign opposing the trans-pacific partnership)
• Publicising voter records (League of Conservation voters publish the ‘dirty dozen’ which shows the 12 candidates with who they consider to have the worst environmental record)

Question 32

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which cultural theory could be used to study party systems in the USA and UK

Answer 32

• Factions in the US (Tea party movement, part of the Republican Party who advocate for a lowering of the national debt and lower taxes- references to Tea party which was anti British tax)
• Parties more centralised in the UK (USA historically has a federal system making parties less centralised, organised at a state level so each party in each state is different- represents ideologically diverse USA)
• Origins in the UK (Labour Party’s origins are in trade Unions, has always had very strong union links, however arguably now is moving away from its very left wing stance, Democrat origins are similar)

Question 33

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which structural theory could be used to study lobbying in the USA and UK

Answer 33

• US has more access points (strict separation of powers in the USA, pressure groups can lobby executive, judiciary and legislature, UK pressure groups do not have this)
• US and SC (UK Supreme Court is less politicised, pressure groups do not bring cases here, in the US they do e.g. Brown v Board of Education 1954- NAACP)
• UK Parliament has less chance of being swayed (more disciplined, therefore will not be persuaded like US members of Congress are- NRA has high influence over HoR)

Question 34

3 ways members of congress represent their constituents

Answer 34

• committee membership: many members of congress sit on committees which allow them to defend their home state or districts interests e.g. 2015-20 the chair of the senate agricultural committee was Pat Roberts -> he steered a bipartisan farm bill through congress with the support of many groups -> led to an act which helped better access to crop insurance
• lobbying the executive: members of congress lobby the executive for funds or policies which benefit their constituents -> funding is controversial -> fed gov allocate funding to states to ensure support for members -> pork barrel funding e.g. the bridge to nowhere 400million project to join two towns which was never built
• constituency case work: members of congress often approached by constituents asking for help with problems e.g. applications for us citizens -> supporting them in completing this document

Question 35

Explain and analyse 3 differences between formal and informal presidential powers

Answer 35

• Informal powers: power to persuade and ability to influence political agenda, deal making: presidents need the support of congress to pass their legislation and may make deals with politicians to achieve this, essential to avoid gridlock -> Trump make bipartisan deals to pass the 2018: first step act which reformed criminal justice
• power to persuade, presidents use personal influence to win support, during periods of divided gov support score typically falls e.g. Obama score dropped to 57% in 2011 after the republicans won back the house -> reached lowest point 45.7% in 2017
• De facto party leader: president is in effect the head of their party and so can influence its membership -> easier to convince congress to pass legislation e.g Trump unable to repeal Obama affordable care act 2010 main campaign

Question 36

3 ways the committee system may be significant in congress

Answer 36

• standing committees are permanent and each house focuses on a specific area of policy these allow congress to manage a wide range of issues it needs to legislate on and investigate, they play a key role in presidential appointments e.g. Merrick Garland nominated by Obama for SC in 2016, but republican members refused
• select committees are set up to deal with a specific urgent issue and therefore prevent the relevant standing committee from being overloaded, they generally dont work on legislation but instead investigate the issue e.g., 2017-2020 the senate select committee on intelligence investigated Russian interference in 2016 presidential elections
• house rules committee is a standing committee in the House of Representatives, it sets the rules for bills -> so important = 2013-19 republican Pete sessions received millions of donations for his campaign -> advance his personal opposition

Question 37

explain and analyse 3 ways the power of the purse is significant

Answer 37

• one of the most powerful checks on the power of the executive
• the executive may make concessions to congress in order to avoid a shutdown
• government shutdowns are relatively rare
  e.g, 2018 Donald trump 35 day shutdown cost 68 million

Question 38

Explain and analyse three aspects of the selection and appointment of Supreme Court Justices.

Answer 38

nominee:

president’s team draw up list of poss nominee, take into account: president political advisers, party, legal experts. judicial experience, legal knowledge, professional standing, rep, history. relation to constitution. nominees firmed by state + FBI

senate confirmation:

president made choice = considered by senate judiciary committee. nominee complete questionnaire + witnesses . most noms come from fed courts of appeals. not all have been judges e.g. Elena Kagan

independence:

once appointed, judges are completely ind. removes president ability to influence. cant be removed from office for judgements. justices has ruled against pres that appointed them e.g. Bill Clinton + RBG

Question 39

Explain and analyse three ways that the Supreme Court performs its role as guardian of the Constitution.

Answer 39

Interpret:

role is to interpret + apply nations laws (as in con). considers laws passed by congress/state legislation. power of judicial review = declare if actions of executive are uncon. check powers of 2 branches of gov

Court:

highest court of in fed judiciary, acts as final court of appeal. appeal = process by which either party in court case can object to verdict + ask for check.

independence:

once appointed, judges are completely ind. removes president ability to influence. cant be removed from office for judgements. justices has ruled against pres that appointed them e.g. Bill Clinton + RBG

Question 40

Explain and analyse 3 ways that the Supreme Court is politically significant

Answer 40

political appointees:

each justice has great political significance from moment of nom. balance of court watched closely = current conservatice 6-3 maj rep concern for liberals. esp after death of RBG. concerns about connection with pres.

controversial rulings:

SC ruled on most controversial areas of US public policy e.g. abortion, gun control, marriage, immigration. landmark rulings = sig political changes. e.g. Roe v Wade (overturned). judgements had same effect as new law legalising - but lacked democratic mandate

Quasi-legislative:

unelected judges created new rights for American = critics label as quasi legislative. argue has moved beyond con role (interpretation) - now makes law. e.g. con doesn’t mention abortion or same sex marriage. judges = ‘legislating the bench’. radical effect

Question 41

Explain and analyse 3 ways that cultural theory could be used to study the similarities and difference between the US and UK supreme courts

Answer 41

rule of law:

both cultures prize rule of law + judicial independence. tradition = Magna Carta (no unlawful imprisonment). New US republic inherites values from prev Brit colonies. represent best of western liberal legal tradition

Populism:

populism on rise in form of trumpism in US - UK electorate decision to leave EU + give Johnson maj in 2019. populists = true representatives of people, criticised judiciary for thwarting will of people

SC:

US SC definition of citizen’s rights via key landmark rulings = bitter cultural battles between liberal x religious groups e.g. abortion, same sex. UK SC has lower public profile, judgements less sig. independent

Question 42

Explain and analyse three ways that structural theory could be used to study the relative independence of the judiciary in the US and UK

Answer 42

security of tenure

separation of powers

independence:

once appointed, judges are completely ind. removes president ability to influence. cant be removed from office for judgements. justices has ruled against pres that appointed them e.g. Bill Clinton + RBG

Question 43

Explain and analyse 3 ways the US constitution reflects the separation and division of powers.

Answer 43

• The articles and branches
  Example: Article One: Congress, Article Two: Executive.
  Analysis: this divided government relcted Montesquieu’s L’Esprit des Loix, which argued the best way to avoid Tyranny and absolutism was to divide government into three branches. Significant as other powers of each branch has changed over time, this principle has been upheld.
• No person can serve in both branches
  Example: Hillary Clinton had to resign as senator for New York when appointed Secretary of State, and Haaland resigned as New Mexico Congresswoman when Biden nominated her Secretary of the Interior in 2020.
  Analysis: limited significance as the VP sits as the senate president and can cast the deciding vote, with Harris presiding over a 50-50 senate in first two years of her term as VP, this is becoming very significant. Not always a seperation, sometimes ‘shared’.
• Checks and Balances
  Example: President on Congress - Veto Acts such as Obamas 12 vetoes. Executive Orders - Biden pardon on all those with criminal record for possession of marijuana.
  Analysis: The branches can influence the decisions of the other branches, however also limit the power of both the judiciary and president if they seemingly are becoming too powerful. When the three branches all reflect the same judicial philosphy this can become less effective