U1 U2 U3 Flashcards

Question

Crucible and Cover

Answer 1

used to hold small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures

Answer 2

clamp used to hold hot test-tube

Answer 3

dispensing and transferring known volumes of fluids

Answer 4

an instrument for determining weight

Answer 5

for drawing in a liquid and expelling it in drops

Answer 6

for making up solutions to a known volume

Answer 7

for pouring liquid or other substance through a small opening

Answer 8

used to hold laboratory glassware

Answer 9

used to grind up materials

Answer 10

measures small amounts of liquids accurately

Answer 11

used to light bunsen burner

Answer 12

used to cover ends of test tubes and flasks

Answer 13

small scoop used to transfer powder and crystal chemicals

Answer 14

used to support a container (such as a beaker or flask) during heating

Answer 15

holds 5-6 test-tubes in a row

Answer 16

used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware

Answer 17

holds funnels, wire gauze above table

Answer 18

used to hold liquids, has narrow neck to prevent splashes

Answer 19

used with ring stand to hold a glass container

Answer 20

used to hold a crucible while the crucible is heated

Answer 21

open tube used to hold liquids

Answer 22

used for weighing and transferring powers and crystals

Answer 23

special paper used to separate solids from liquids

Answer 24

used to prevent a person from exposure to hazardous fumes from chemicals

Answer 25

used to heat and stir substances

Answer 26

1. Be in your assigned seat, ready to begin when the class period starts.2. Always bring all required materials with you to class, and put away all non-class materials before class begins.3. Show respect to your classmates, teacher, classroom, and yourself, in both your words and actions.4. Do not disrupt the classroom learning environment for your fellow students and teacher. Follow your teacher’s procedures to ask questions or ask for help (ex. raising your hand and waiting to be called on).5. Cell phones, computers, and other electronic devices must be put away in a location designated by the teacher, unless specifically directed otherwise for a class activity.6. If an issue arises or you have a question, communicate with your teacher about it as soon as possible.

Answer 27

On my honor, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on my work, nor do I tolerate academic dishonesty in others.

Answer 28

A testable explanation or prediction based on the observation and the scientist’s prior knowledge

Answer 29

A prediction that there is no relationship between two variables.

Answer 30

The factor or condition being changed“the cause”X-axis

Answer 31

The factor or condition being measured“the effect”Y-axis

Answer 32

A factor or condition that is keptconstant throughout the experiment

Answer 33

This group experiences the sameconditions as the experimental group,except for the single independentvariable being studied

Answer 34

done in lab

Answer 35

observing andanalyzing something happeningnaturally, out of control of the scientist

Answer 36

Based on numbers

Answer 37

Based on Observation

Answer 38

the basic unit of matter.

Answer 39

a pure substancethat consists of one type ofatom.

Answer 40

Atoms are composed of threesubatomic particles:

Answer 41

Positively charged subatomic particle, found inthe nucleus.

Answer 42

Subatomic particle with no charge, found inthe nucleus.

Answer 43

Negatively charged subatomic particle, foundoutside of the nucleus.

Answer 44

1st Orbital: Maximum 2 electrons2nd Orbital: Maximum 8 electrons3rd Orbital: Maximum 18 electrons

Answer 45

the number of protons in the atom.

Answer 46

the total number of protons and neutrons inthe nucleus of an atom.

Answer 47

the weighted average of the masses of anelement’s isotopes.

Answer 48

Atoms off the same element that differ in the numbers of neutrons they contain. Identified by mass number.

Answer 49

the outer orbital/electron shell.

Answer 50

basic unit of life

Answer 51

a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions.

Answer 52

made when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together?

Answer 53

Ionic and Covalent

Answer 54

Chemical bond formed when one or moreelectrons are transferred from one atom to another.

Answer 55

An atom that either gains electrons or loses electrons.As such, it is either positively or negatively charged.

Answer 56

Chemical bond formed when the electronsare shared between atoms.

Answer 57

bond with many otheratoms. As such, chains of carbon often formthe backbone of macromolecules.

Answer 58

Macromolecules are largemolecules made frommany smaller molecules.

Answer 59

Monomers: the small units.* Polymers: the large units.

Answer 60

a water moleculeis polar because there isan uneven distribution ofelectrons between thehydrogen atoms andoxygen atoms. Thenegative pole is near theoxygen atom and thepositive pole is near thehydrogen atoms

Answer 61

forces that holdatoms together withina molecule.

Answer 62

forces that existbetween molecules.

Answer 63

attraction between ahydrogen atom andanother atom.

Answer 64

attraction of molecules of the same substance.attraction between molecules of different substances.

Answer 65

tendency of water to rise in a thin tube.

Answer 66

a material composed of two or more elements orcompounds that are physically mixed together but not chemicallycombined.

Answer 67

mixture of water and nondissolved material

Answer 68

type of mixture in which all components are evenlydistributed

Answer 69

Solute: substance that is dissolved in solution. Ex: sugar,saltSolvent: dissolving substance in a solution. Ex: water

Answer 70

nonpolarmolecules that repel watermolecules. “Water fearing”

Answer 71

molecules formingionic or a hydrogen bond withwater molecules. “Waterloving”

Answer 72

The surface becomes stronger because they exert more force horizontally when they cant exert it up(happens to water)

Answer 73

A chemical reaction that builds upmolecules by losing watermolecules.

Answer 74

The process of splitting acompound into fragments with theaddition of water; a kind of reactionthat is used to break down polymersinto simpler units, e.g. starch intoglucose.

Answer 75

The process ofcreating large molecules fromsmaller molecules, utilizingenergy.

Answer 76

The process ofbreaking large molecules downinto smaller molecules,releasing energy.

Answer 77

There are fourtypes:* Carbohydrates (sugars)* Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen* Lipids (fats)* Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen* Proteins* Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, andNitrogen* Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA)* Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,Nitrogen, and Phosphorous

Answer 78

Organic compounds made of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Functionsinclude:■ Most carbohydrates are brokendown into glucose which istaken up by cells to make ATP● Chemical formula forglucose is C6H12O6ATP uses phosphate in a process of catabolism when giving energy.■ ATP is used as a source ofenergy for a variety ofmetabolic processesmono,di,polysaccharides?!?!?!?!?

Answer 79

building block* Glucose: one of the body’s primary energy sources* Fructose:naturally occuring sugar common infruits

Answer 80

Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides combines* Sucrose (glucose + fructose), table sugar* Lactose (glucose + galactose), milk sugar

Answer 81

Polysaccharides: 2+ monosaccharides* Starch (chain of glucose); Used byplants to store sugar* Glycogen (chain of glucose); Used byanimals to store sugar* Cellulose (chain of glucose); Tough andflexible fiber that gives plants strengthand flexibility

Answer 82

Organic compounds made mostly fromcarbon and hydrogen atoms and aregenerally not soluble in water.Non-polar and hydrophillicFunctions:* Store energy* Biological membranes* Steroids, such as hormones,act as chemical messengers* Waterproof coverings (plants)

Answer 83

A fattyacid that contains carbonsonly joined by single bonds.* Maximum number of hydrogens* Examples: Fats, waxes

Answer 84

A fatty acid that contains atleast one double bondbetween carbon atoms.* Fewer hydrogens* Examples: cooking oils

Answer 85

Trans Fats are unsaturated fatswhich are uncommon in nature, butcan be created artificially (chemicallyaltered vegetable oil)..Trans fats are edible,but have been known toraise the risk ofcoronary heart disease.Has been found that people that consume transfats experience a significant increase in LDL(bad) cholesterol) without a corresponding rise inHDL (good cholesterol).

Answer 86

Macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen.Functions:* Control the rate of reactions (enzymes)* Regulate cell processes (transport substances, help fight diseases)* Form cellular structures* The building block (monomer) of a protein is the amino acid* Amino acids: Organic compounds with an amino group (-NH2) onone end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end.* Multiple amino acids linked together (via covalent peptide bonds) formpolypeptides (polymer).* A protein is a function molecule built from one or morepolypeptides.

Answer 87

There are over 20 differentkinds of amino acids. Allamino acids consist of:* Central carbon atom* Carboxyl group* Amino group* Hydrogen atom* Variable “R” group

Answer 88

The only difference in the 20kinds of amino acids is the “R”group.* R groups vary in size, can be polar or nonpolar,acid or basic* The shape and function of a protein is determinedby the “R” group.

Answer 89

Amino acids are assembled intopolypeptide chains according toinstructions coded in DNA.Scientists describe protein ashaving four levels of structurewhich enables a protein tocarry out a specific job. .

Answer 90

Primary Structure: The sequence ofamino acids.Sequence is defined by genes withinmolecules of DNA.

Answer 91

Secondary Structure: Coilsand folding of the aminoacid chain.* Hydrogen bonding between aminoacids can form helix or pleated sheet.

Answer 92

Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional shape of theprotein that is stabilized by interactions betweenR-groups(side chains).

Answer 93

Quaternary Structure: Association between two or moredifferent polypeptide chains (protein subunits)found inonly some proteins.

Answer 94

Keratin in hair and the subunits ofhemoglobin have a helix secondarystructure.Coiled structure due to hydrogenbonding between Oxygens ofcarboxylic acid group of one aminoacid and hydrogens of the aminogroup of another amino acid.

Answer 95

Silk, is a natural protein fiber, thatconsists of polypeptide chains thatrepeat back and forth uponthemselves. Hydrogen bonds holdadjacent segments of thepolypeptide together.* Where does silk come from?* From the cocoons of the larvae ofmoth caterpillars.

Answer 96

Macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus.* Monomer: nucleotide* Polymer: nucleic acidsNucleotides have three parts:* A 5-carbon sugar* A phosphate group* A Nitrogenous baseNucleoside has the same parts except no nitrogenous baseNucleic acids store and transmit hereditary or geneticinformation.* Examples: DNA, RNANitrogenous Base DNA: A,C,G,TRNA: A,C,G,UThe sugars and phosphates lie onthe outside of the helix, formingthe backbone of the DNA○ This portion of the moleculeis sometimes calledthe sugar-phosphate backbone.● The two strands of the helix run inopposite directions○ Meaning that the 5′ end ofone strand is paired up withthe 3′ end of its matchingstrand.○ This is referred toas antiparallel orientationand is important for thecopying of DNA.

Answer 97

Essential amino acids(9) you cant produce them, you must get from natureNon-Essential amino acids(11) you can produce them using essential amino acids

Answer 98

2H2+O2 ---> 2H2O H2O(l) ---> H2O(g)Chemical PhysicalEquilibrium is when a reaction goes both ways( <---->)

Answer 99

Chemical reactions involve the breaking and/or forming of bonds. This is DIFFERENT from a physical change, like something changing state or being cut into pieces. One common misconception is that something melting/boiling/freezing/etc is a chemical reaction. It is NOT. In order for something to be a chemical change/reaction, the chemical itself must be changing in some way. So for example, if you have an ice cube that melts, it is still water. If you boil water, it is STILL H2O, it just happens to now be a gas versus a liquid. So, those would both be physical changes. If you were to take water and break it apart into hydrogen and oxygen gas, though, that would then be a chemical change, because it is no longer H2O.

Answer 100

When looking at a chemical reaction, the number in front of a substance is called the coefficient, and it tells you how many of that particular substance is needed for the reaction to occur. In this example with water, you need 2 molecules of H2 and only 1 molecule of O2, in order to form 2 molecules of H2O.

Answer 101

Some chemical reactions will have a letter in parentheses after each substance. The letter tells you what state of matter that substance is in. For example, if this reaction said O2 (g), that would tell you that it is oxygen gas specifically. “g” for gas, “l” for liquid, “s” for solid, “aq” for aqueous (dissolved)

Answer 102

An exothermic reaction releases energy from the system in the form of heat.. Exothermic reactions can happen on their own (“spontaneously”)- The reaction is colder than surroundings

Answer 103

An endothermic reaction absorbs energy from its surrounding in the form of heat.endothermic reaction cannot happen unless there is an input of energy.- The reaction is hotter than surroundings

Answer 104

We call these types of graphs “potential energy diagrams”. You can determine if a reaction is endothermic or exothermic by looking at the energy level of the products versus the reactants.

Answer 105

2H2(g)+O2 ---> 2H2O(g) + Energythis reaction releases energy, and happens spontaneouslyin order to reverse this reaction, you have to input energy, it doesn’t occur on its own!EX. You have to run an electric current through water to decompose it into hydrogen and oxygen gas!

Answer 106

Energy needed to start a reactionIn the case of an exothermic reaction, the reactants are at a higher energy level as compared to the products, as shown below in the energy diagrams. In other words, the products are more stable than the reactants. Overall ΔH for the reaction is negative, i.e., energy is released in the form of heat.In the case of an endothermic reaction, the reactants are at a lower energy level compared to the products—as shown in the energy diagram below. In other words, the products are less stable than the reactants. Since we are forcing the reaction in the forward direction towards more unstable entities, overall ΔH for the reaction is positive, i.e., energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

Answer 107

speeds up chemical reaction by lowering activation energyReusable!

Answer 108

a biological catalyst (protein!)Reusable!

Answer 109

The answer depends on the enzyme. Some enzymes speed up chemical reactions by bringing two substrates together in the right orientation. Others create an environment inside the active site that's favorable to the reaction (for instance, one that's slightly acidic or non-polar). The enzyme-substrate complex can also lower activation energy by bending substrate molecules in a way that facilitates bond-breaking, helping to reach the transition state.

Answer 110

Temperature. A higher temperature generally makes for higher rates of reaction, enzyme-catalyzed or otherwise. However, either increasing or decreasing the temperature outside of a tolerable range can affect chemical bonds in the active site, making them less well-suited to bind substrates. Very high temperatures (for animal enzymes, above 40∘C or 104∘F) may cause an enzyme to denature, losing its shape and activity.pH. pH can also affect enzyme function. Active site amino acid residues often have acidic or basic properties that are important for catalysis. Changes in pH can affect these residues and make it hard for substrates to bind. Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and, as with temperature, extreme pH values (acidic or basic) can make enzymes denature.

Answer 111

Breaking of enzyme down

Answer 112

Protein phosphatase enzyme, helps regulate communication between human cells, including communication related to health/diseases1 trillion years w/ out10 milliseconds with

Answer 113

Pictures shows TERTIARY-remember enzymes are proteins, they will have tertiary structure. Some quaternary. Enzyme names are usually derived from the reaction it catalyzes.

Answer 114

Shape determines function - an enzyme is specific for a substrate!They only act on a specific substrate.

Answer 115

Enzyme changes shape slightly as substrate binds.

Answer 116

The pH level measures how acidic or basic a solution is, by measuring the concentration of H+ ions that are present!

Answer 117

AcidCompound that releases H+ ions in a solutEX -> HCl (hydrochloric acid), H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)BaseCompound that releases OH- ions in a solutionEX -> sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)

Answer 118

More AcidicLower pHMore H+ ionsLess OH- ionsMore Basic/AlkalineHigher pHLess H+ ionsMore OH- ions

Answer 119

(a) In aqueous (watery) solution, an acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions(negative). Every molecule of a strong acid dissociates, producing a high concentration of H+. (b) In aqueous solution, a base dissociates into hydroxyl ions (OH–) and cations(Positive). Every molecule of a strong base dissociates, producing a high concentration of OH–.

Answer 120

A buffer is a weak acid (only some of the substance dissociates completely into H+ ions) or base (only some of the substance dissociates completely into OH- ions) that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH.

Answer 121

Blood contains large amounts of carbonic acid (weak acid) & bicarbonate (weak base). Together they help maintain blood pH at 7.4. If blood pH falls below 6.8 or rises above 7.8, one can become sick or die. The bicarbonate neutralizes excess acids in the blood while the carbonic acid neutralizes excess bases.

Answer 122

Lock-and-Key Model. In this model, we describe the substrate as a “key” that fits intothe enzyme’s “lock”, or its active site. Since the active site is the exact shape thatmatches up with the substrate’s shape in order for it to fit, it’s similar to how a lock isthe same shape as a key, allowing it to unlock if only that specific key is used on it.

Answer 123

This model was suggested in 1958, by Daniel Koshland. Itsuggests that the correct substrate is able to induce the active site to change shapeinto the proper alignment that enables the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. So,an active site on an enzyme is flexible and continues to change until the substrate isbound in the active site, at which point the final shape and charge is determined as theactive site conforms to the substrate’s shape, allowing the reaction to be catalyzed.

Answer 124

An inhibitor is something that prevents an enzyme fromdoing its job to catalyze a reaction.

Answer 125

Uses lenses to magnify the image of an object by focusing light after it passes through the specimen

Answer 126

Great for viewing living organismsEasy to use, common in schoolsCheaper, smaller, and simpler than other types of microscopesNo need for other special machinery or techniques (ie. vacuum, radiation) to operateObject being viewed retains its natural/authentic color

Answer 127

Components may not be visible (most cells are transparent) unless using special stains (usually kills the cell)Lower resolution than other types A microscope can only show an image of something that is smaller than the wavelength of light used. Since visible light has a (relatively) long wavelength, and the light is diffracted/scattered as it passes through the matter and lenses, this makes the image blurry at higher magnifications.Maximum useful magnification - 1000xOnly shows a 2D image at higher magnifications

Answer 128

Compound MicroscopeDissecting (or Stereo) Microscope

Answer 129

Typically 40x-400x, can view individual cells, 2-D image

Answer 130

Typically 7-20x, can only view larger objects, 3-D image

Answer 131

Uses a beam of electrons, instead of light, which are focused using magnetic fields

Answer 132

Higher resolution images (due to shorter wavelength of electrons vs. visible light)Good for viewing whole cells or individual components Can be used at higher magnifications, up to 1,000,000x

Answer 133

Requires sample to go through a special chemical fixation process and then viewed in a vacuumCannot view living cellsMuch more expensive, complicated, larger, and difficult to operate Requires a lot of specialized equipment to work properly and is very sensitive/easy to damage

Answer 134

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Answer 135

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)Beams pass through thin samples, creates flat/2D imagesGood for viewing cellular structures and larger proteins

Answer 136

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)Beam scans the surface, producing high resolution 3D imagesGood for viewing surfaces of cells

Answer 137

He described the cork as having box-shaped, pore-like structures, which he called “cells” In 1665, Robert Hooke published observations he made using a microscope, in the book Micrographia.

Answer 138

He developed hundreds of simple single lens microscopes with an increased magnification! This allowed him to view organisms in more detailObserved many biological specimens using his single lens microscopes, and sent his findings to the Royal SocietySaw tiny creatures he called them animalcules(Micromolecules)

Answer 139

Studied cells along with Matthias Schleiden, compared their studies of animal and plant cellsIn 1839, proposed classical cell theory:All living organisms are made of cellsCells are the basic unit of lifeBoth Schwann and Schleiden were mistaken about the origins of those cells, though, which was correctly identified by another scientist…

Answer 140

In 1855, he added a third conclusion to classical cell theory:All cells come from preexisting cells

Answer 141

Classical Cell Theory:- All living things are made up of cells- Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things- All cells are produced from existing cellsModern Cell Theory adds:- DNA contains hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during division- All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities- Energy flow occurs within cells

Answer 142

Contain DNA (molecule that carries genetic information)Are surrounded by a cell membrane (plasma membrane)Have cytoplasmHave ribosomesOn average range from 5 to 50 micrometers in diameter

Answer 143

NO nucleusNO membrane-bound organellesThey are simple & unicellular

Answer 144

Bacteria vs. Archaea

Answer 145

Domain of prokaryotes that contain peptidoglycan in their cell wallsLive almost everywhere (fresh/salt water, land, within and on human bodies, etc)Some a “good” some are “bad” (ie. some “help” other organisms and some cause disease, etc)

Answer 146

Domain of prokaryotes without peptidoglycan in their cell wallsMost live in extremely harsh environments (acidic, hot, salty, etc.)

Answer 147

Polymer of sugars and amino acids that can surround the cell membrane

Answer 148

Binary fissionConjugation

Answer 149

type of asexual reproduction in which an organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing 2 identical daughter cells.

Answer 150

Process in which some prokaryotes exchange genetic information by moving a cell through a hollow bridge from one cell to another

Answer 151

In favorable conditions, can grow and divide quickly! As fast as once every 20 minutes!In unfavorable conditions, many form an endospore (a thick internal wall that encloses DNA and a portion of the cytoplasm) that can remain dormant for months or years!

Answer 152

a thick internal wall that encloses DNA and a portion of the cytoplasm

Answer 153

AutotrophsHeterotrophs

Answer 154

Photo-AutotrophChemo-AutotrophPhoto-HeterotrophChemo-Heterotroph

Answer 155

-Light as energy source-CO2 as C source

Answer 156

-Chemicals as energy source-CO2 as C source

Answer 157

-Light as energy source-Organic compounds as C source

Answer 158

-Chemicals as energy source-Organic compounds as C source

Answer 159

Essential in maintaining ecological balance of the living world!Decomposers, Producers, Nitrogen fixers, Human uses

Answer 160

Bacteria can be pathogensCan damage host tissues and cells, or cause tissue damage when they provoke an immune response (ex. tuberculosis)Can release toxins that act as poison, interfering or killing the host (ex. diptheria)

Answer 161

break down dead organisms, supply raw materials

Answer 162

conduct photosynthesis

Answer 163

provide 90% of nitrogen used by other organisms

Answer 164

used in wide variety of foods and other commercial products

Answer 165

agents that cause diseases (bacteria and virus can be pathogenic, there are currently no known pathogenic archaea)

Answer 166

Generally larger and more complex than prokaryotes, can be unicellular or multicellularDNA found in nucleus, have dozens of internal structures (organelles)Includes Animals, Plants, Protists, and Fungi

Answer 167

The endosymbiotic theory states that some of the organelles in today's eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic microbes

Answer 168

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both similar in size to bacteria and contain their own DNA, ribosomes, and double membrane. This single stranded DNA is found exclusively in prokaryotes.Chloroplast membranes closely resemble the membranes of photosynthetic prokaryotesSome cells today contain bacteria and algae living in an endosymbiotic relationship

Answer 169

a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes.

Answer 170

Eukaryotes reproduce asexually in the process of mitosis.A part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are seperated into two new nuclei.

Answer 171

Shortest distance btwn two places on one specimen that can be identified as different

Answer 172

what you can see through the microscope lens

Answer 173

the range in which the object can still be clearly seen

Answer 174

when a microscope creates an image a differnt size to the actual object it is looking at.

Answer 175

DNARibosomesCell Walls Cell MembranePiliFlagella

Answer 176

free-floating in cytoplasm, contain genetic information

Answer 177

Synthesize proteins

Answer 178

Shapes, supports, and protects cell

Answer 179

Regulates materials entering and leaving cell

Answer 180

Short, hair-like structures on cell surface, usually involved in adherence to surfaces

Answer 181

Primarily used for cell movement

Answer 182

Cocci - sphericalBacilla - rod shaped

Answer 183

Diplo - = two cellsStrepto - = chain of cellsStaphylo - = cluster of cells

Answer 184

spirillum is short spaghet and spirochete is long spaghet

Answer 185

A common way to distinguish between types of bacteria, All bacteria (but not archaea!) have peptidoglycan in their cell walls.

Answer 186

Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan

Answer 187

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan

Answer 188

Main compartments = nucleus + cytoplasm

Answer 189

semifluid substance, contains everything not in a nucleusMedium for chemical reactions, allows movement through the cell, suspends organelles

Answer 190

Surrounded by nuclear envelope (double-membrane)Nuclear pores in envelope Chromatin is found hereThe Nucleolus

Answer 191

allow materials to move in and out of nucleus

Answer 192

(the spread out form of chromosomes, which are made of DNA)

Answer 193

is a small dense region where ribosomes are produced and assembled

Answer 194

Intricate membrane system Has SER and RER

Answer 195

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) makes and transports lipids, phospholipids, and steroids

Answer 196

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) makes proteins and other membrane parts. Also modifies, sorts, and transports proteins!

Answer 197

Site of protein synthesisMade of rRNA and proteins( and polypeptides)2 subunits: Large(puts amino acids together to form polypeptides) and Small(decode the RNA)Eukaryotes have bigger ribosomes then prokaryotes

Answer 198

Processes, sorts, and transports membrane proteins and other secreted proteinsCis face receives, trans face “ships” out(check notes for better explanation)Transport vesicles bud off the trans face to take the protein to the next organelle or to the membrane to be exported

Answer 199

Stores materials (water, salts, proteins, waste, carbohydrates, etc)Many plant cells have one central vacuole, unlike animal cells

Answer 200

Network of protein filaments in eukaryotes Helps give shape to cell, provide structure/organization, transport materials along the filaments, and can help the cell moveMicrofilaments and Microtubules

Answer 201

made of actin(proteins),small, threadlike

Answer 202

made of tubulins(proteins),bigger, hollow, important in cell division

Answer 203

Myosin is a motor protein that can “walk” along actin to help move things inside the cell.

Answer 204

Surrounded by membrane, transport materials from one place to another (or out of the cell)Formed by pinching off other organelle (ex. Cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, etc)Fuse with target organelleSome store enzymes that need to be stored at different pH than cytoplasm

Answer 205

Surrounded by membrane, contain hydrolytic enzymes Break down macromolecules or old organelles into small molecules that the cell can reuse (“recycling”)Common in animal cells, rare in plant cells (central vacuole does this instead)Example:Old protein can be broken down into its individual amino acids, which the cell could then use to make other new proteins!

Answer 206

Breaks down food (glucose) to generate useable energy (ATP) for the cellContains its own DNA and ribosomesDouble membrane (inner + outer)Both plants and animals have theseSpace between inner and outer is the inter matrix

Answer 207

Captures energy from sunlight and converts it into stored chemical energy (glucose)Contains chlorophyllDouble membrane (inner + outer)Has its own DNA and ribosomesAnimals do NOT have these

Answer 208

The membrane is a “mosaic” of many different things (phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, etc) that can move around fluidly within the membrane.

Answer 209

Thin, flexible barrier around all cellsSelectively permeableRegulates what enters or leaves the cell

Answer 210

Phospholipid, Membrane Protein, Cholesterol, Carbohydrates,

Answer 211

Main component of the membraneLipid made of two fatty acid, a phosphate group, and a glycerol moleculeAmphipathicHydrophilic headHydrophobic tail

Answer 212

Membrane ProteinsProteins within the membraneCan be partially within, all the way through, or just loosely attachedMany roles, including signaling, transport, attachment, etc.

Answer 213

Lipid made of four fused carbon ringsHelps maintain correct fluidity and stability

Answer 214

Attached to proteins or lipids, on outer surfacePlay role in cell recognition, etc.GlycoproteinsGlycolipids

Answer 215

Strong supporting layer around cell membraneMaintains shapeProtects against mechanical stressMost prokaryotes and eukaryotes (ex. plants, fungi) have them, but animals do notPorous, typically allow water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc, to pass through

Answer 216

Cilia = tiny, hair-like, MANY, many rolesONLY in eukaryotic cells

Answer 217

Single layer of phospholipids

Answer 218

Substances will naturally move from HIGH to LOW concentration.Eventually, an equilibrium would be reached (no gradient remaining).

Answer 219

No energy required!High to low (concentration)Easy peasy :)

Answer 220

Energy is required!Low to high (concentration)Not easy peasy :(

Answer 221

Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Osmosis

Answer 222

Particles move from high to low until reaches equilibrium

Answer 223

When molecules can’t go directly across a membrane, so they pass through special protein channels

Answer 224

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane Through the membrane directly and in larger quantities through aquaporins Water will move across a membrane until the concentration of solute is the same on both sides!Solute vs. SolventSugar can’t move across the membrane by itself, it’s too large

Answer 225

The substances will continue to move, but there is no net change in concentration on either side! Movement doesn’t stop entirely!

Answer 226

Hypotonic Solution, Hypertonic Solution, Isotonic Solution

Answer 227

Water diffuses INTO cellCell expands

Answer 228

Water diffuses OUT OF cellCell shrinks

Answer 229

Water moves in and out equallyCell stays the same

Answer 230

Isotonic Solution

Answer 231

Hypotonic Solution

Answer 232

Selective and Bulk Transport

Answer 233

Small molecules, ionsProteins in membrane are used

Answer 234

Large molecules, clumps of materialsMovements of the cell membrane itself

Answer 235

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Answer 236

“endo” = withinMaterial is taken into cell by infolding of the cell membranePhagocytosis and Pinocytosis

Answer 237

taking up particles and packing within food vacuole“cell eating”

Answer 238

= taking up liquid from surrounding environment“cell drinking”

Answer 239

“exo” = out ofMaterial is released from the cell by vesicle fusing with membraneSignaling molecules, waste, toxins, etc.

Answer 240

Uses ATP as the energy source. A very common example is the sodium-potassium pump!

Answer 241

Uses the energy stored in electrochemical gradients Ions have charges, and when there’s an imbalance in charges on either side of the membrane, there is a membrane potentialThe combination of concentration and membrane potential = electrochemical gradient!BOTH will affect which way things move across the membraneSo, a primary active transport protein can set up this electrochemical gradient, which the secondary active transport protein can then use!

Answer 242

Passive transport or primary active transport1 direction of travel, 1 thing traveling

Answer 243

1 direction of travel, 2 things traveling

Answer 244

2 directions of travel, 2 things traveling

Answer 245

Cotransport

Answer 246

Get information from their surroundings and other cellsSend information out for other cells to receiveIn multicellular organisms, be able to coordinate complex functions that involve many different cellsCommunicate within themselves! (ex. organelle to organelle)

Answer 247

Signaling molecule that binds to a certain receptor

Answer 248

A protein that “receives” the ligand and causes some effect

Answer 249

A cell that has the receptor for a particular ligand

Answer 250

A cell that does NOT have the receptor for a particular ligand

Answer 251

Reception, Transduction, and Response

Answer 252

Internal receptorsCell-surface receptors

Answer 253

In cytoplasmLigand has to enter cell to bind

Answer 254

In cell membraneThree main types:Ion-channel linked receptorsG-protein coupled receptorsEnzyme-linked receptors

Answer 255

When the ligand binds, the transmembrane channel opens, allowing ions to move through it.

Answer 256

When the ligand binds, the receptor interacts with a G-protein which starts the signal transduction chain of events.The receptor has seven transmembrane regions.GTP to GDP

Answer 257

When the ligand binds, the receptor activates an enzyme, which starts the signal transduction chain of events.

Answer 258

IntracellularSeries of signaling events, like a chain reaction

Answer 259

Depends on the particular signal! But, often:Changes in gene regulationTurning expression of certain genes on/offRegulates another protein’s activity

Answer 260

A growth factor binding to a cell causes an increase in the expression of genes that allow the cell to grow and divide!When adrenaline binds to a muscle cell, it inactive the enzyme responsible for storing glucose and activates the enzyme responsible for producing glucose!

Answer 261

At a certain density, the cells “decide” to change what they are doing. This works by the bacteria cell producing a ligand. When there is a low density of cells, there are less receptors for the ligand to bind to which results in no cellular response. When there is a higher concentration, there are more ligands and receptors. Once the ligands bind, they activate specific genes in the chromosomes of bacterial cells.

Answer 262

Biofilm. The biofilm creates optimal conditions for the further growth of the organisms living within it.

Answer 263

Signaling between cells that are touching one another. This allows substances to move from one cytoplasm to the next

Answer 264

Paracrine signals move by diffusion through the extracellular matrix. This causes a quick response that lasts a short amount of time. The ligands are quickly degraded by enzymes to keep the concentration gradient.

Answer 265

The cell releases a ligand that binds to a receptor on the cell that released it.

Answer 266

The Cell releases ligands that travel through the circulatory system slowly. They connect to the receptor of the target cell and are active for a very long time(since there is a low concentration of them). These ligands are called hormones.

Answer 267

Gap junctions, like cardiac muscles within the heart. It's important for the muscles to communicate quickly so that their contractions happen simultaneously, allowing the heart to beat properly.

Answer 268

An example of this is between nerve cells. To allow signal transmission between cells to be fast, they use Paracrine. This enables an immediate response.

Answer 269

An example is in the early development of an organism to ensure that cells develop into the correct tissues and take on the proper function.

Answer 270

An example of this is the pancreas, one of the endocrine glands that regulates the body’s blood glucose levels. Produces Insulin that travels through the bloodstream and connects to a liver cell receptor. This produces glycogen that can store glucose for later.

Answer 271

Process that cells use to release energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules Composed of three main partsMost parts of cellular respiration require oxygen (which is why we need to breathe!)“Respiration”ALL cells must carry out some version of cellular respiration to have energy to live!Cells that live in anaerobic environments can only do the anaerobic parts!

Answer 272

requires oxygen

Answer 273

does not require oxygen

Answer 274

GlycolysisAnaerobicKrebs CycleAerobicElectron Transport ChainAerobic

Answer 275

“Sugar-breaking”Molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acidGlucose = 6 carbonsPyruvic acid (also called pyruvate) = 3 carbonsNeeds 2 ATP for the process to begin, and produces 4 ATPNET GAIN OF 2 ATP PER GLUCOSE MOLECULEAlso produces 2 NADH moleculesPasses 4 high energy electrons to NAD+NADH is used later in the electron transport chainOccurs in the cytoplasmAnaerobicDoes NOT require oxygen

Answer 276

Molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid

Answer 277

Does NOT require oxygenAnaerobic

Answer 278

Occurs in the cytoplasm

Answer 279

Needs 2 ATP for the process to begin, and produces 4 ATPNet 2 ATP

Answer 280

Also produces 2 NADH moleculesPasses 4 high energy electrons to NAD+NADH is used later in the electron transport chain

Answer 281

Allow a cell to move electrons around as needed

Answer 282

Ex. in cellular respiration: NADH and FADH2

Answer 283

Found in cytosol of the cell

Answer 284

Inner membrane has cristae (many inward protrusions)Increases surface area!

Answer 285

space between double membranes

Answer 286

compartment within inner membrane

Answer 287

helps keep reactions separate and maintain different molecule concentrations in certain areas

Answer 288

Pyruvate enters the mitochondriaPyruvate is first converted to acetyl-CoA in order to prepare for the cycleThis conversion produces 1 NADH and 1 molecule of CO2Occurs in mitochondrial matrixAcetyl-CoA (generated from pyruvic acid) is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactionsCycle turns twice per original glucose molecule1 glucose = 2 pyruvateEach turn of cycle = 1 ATP producedPer glucose = 2 ATP producedAerobic, occurs in matrix

Answer 289

Pyruvate is first converted to acetyl-CoA in order to prepare for the cycle

Answer 290

Occurs in mitochondrial matrix

Answer 291

Series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high-energy electrons during ATP-generating reactionsOxidative PhosphorylationElectron carriers were made in glycolysis & Krebs cycleNADH and FADH2ATP Synthase = generates ATP from ADPOccurs in inner mitochondrial membraneRegenerates electron carriersGenerates electrochemical gradient

Answer 292

Produces water and ~32 ATP

Answer 293

generates ATP from ADPWorks similarly to a water turbine in a power plantH+ ions instead of waterProcess is called chemiosmosis

Answer 294

Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane

Answer 295

Electron carriers were made in glycolysis & Krebs cycle

Answer 296

Energy stored in proton gradient used to do work

Answer 297

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Answer 298

Anaerobic Steps:GlycolysisFermentationLactic AcidEthanol/Alcohol

Answer 299

Allows you to continue to conduct glycolysis to generate those 2 ATP over and over again!Steady supply of ATPNowhere near as much energy as aerobic respiration, but better than nothing!

Answer 300

Alcohol Fermentation and Lactic Acid Fermentation

Answer 301

Produces CO2 and Ethanol/Alcohol and NADHPyruvic acid + NADH ---> Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

Answer 302

Produces Lactate and NADHPyruvic acid + NADH ---> Lactic acid + NAD+

Answer 303

Used to produce alcoholic drinks and biofuelProcess that causes bread to rise

Answer 304

Food processing and preservation, such as pickles, sauerkraut, kimchi, yogurt, cured fish/meatsQuick bursts of energy for humans! (<90 s)

Answer 305

Not only does it capture energy from outer space (the Sun) and convert it into compounds that all life on Earth can use…… but it also produces oxygen, for aerobic organisms to breathe/use!

Answer 306

Uses energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide (low energy reactants) into sugar and oxygen (high-energy products)These sugars can then be used to produce complex carbohydrates (like starch) or provide energy for their cells to do work(sunlight) + 6CO2 + 6H2O ---> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Answer 307

Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

Answer 308

Where photosynthesis takes placeFound in plants and other organisms (not animals)Contain chlorophyll

Answer 309

Fluid inside of chloroplast(kinda like cytoplasm)

Answer 310

Stack of thylakoids

Answer 311

Where light-dependent reaction happens

Answer 312

A pigment that absorbs certain wavelengths and reflects others

Answer 313

Two types found in plants, chlorophyll a and bThese REFLECT green light, which is why plants look green!Thus, they ABSORB light that isn’t green, especially blue/violet and red light

Answer 314

Light-dependent reactions and Calvin Cycle

Answer 315

In thylakoid

Answer 316

Sunlight absorbed, energy produced converts NADP+ and ADP into NADPH and ATPWater is required (source of electrons and hydrogen atoms)Oxygen is released

Answer 317

clusters of chlorophyll (light absorbing pigments ) and proteins in the thylakoid

Answer 318

Absorbs light, excites electrons, those electrons get passed to an electron transport chain

Answer 319

After electrons pass through ETC, this photosystem uses light energy to reenergize the electrons, which are picked up by NADP+ and H+

Answer 320

Light + H2O + NADP + ADP

Answer 321

O2 + NADPH + ATP

Answer 322

In stromaATP and NADPH from light dependent reaction are used to produce glucose from CO2Carbon dioxide required, absorbed from atmosphere

Answer 323

CO2 + NADPH + ATP

Answer 324

Glucose + NADP+ + ADP

Answer 325

CO2 molecule enters the cycle and combines with other carbon compounds

Answer 326

ATP and NADPH are used to make G3P, which goes off to make glucose

Answer 327

Some G3P molecules stay to be recycled, so the cycle can continue!

Answer 328

The study of heredity

Answer 329

The joining of male and female gametes to produce a new cell

Answer 330

self-pollinating plants that produce offspring identical to themselves

Answer 331

Mendel used cross-pollination of true-breeding plants to produce new combinations and study the results.Gregor Mendel was the father of geneticsHe also used peas BECAUSE they were self-pollinating which can lead to true-breeding plants.

Answer 332

An individual's characteristics are determined by factors that are passed from one generation to the next.

Answer 333

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait; factor that is passed from parent to offspringExample: There is a gene that determines the trait for hair color

Answer 334

Different forms of a gene. Example: The possible alleles for the gene for hair color include brown, black, blonde, red, etc.

Answer 335

An organism with one dominant allele will exhibit the dominant form of the trait.

Answer 336

An organism must have two copies of the recessive allele to exhibit the recessive form of the trait.

Answer 337

Parental generation; true-breeding

Answer 338

First filial generation; offspring of the P cross

Answer 339

Second filial generation; offspring of the F1 cross

Answer 340

All offspring looked like one parent from the P generation.

Answer 341

Most offspring look like the F1 generation but approximately ¼ look like the second parent from the P generation.

Answer 342

During gamete formation, alleles segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only a single copy of each gene. Each F1 plant produces two kinds of gametes: those with the tall allele and those with the short allele. The alleles separate during gamete formation and then pair up again in the F2 generation (fertilization), with the capital letter representing the dominant allele and the lowercase letter representing the recessive allele. The F2 generation had new combinations of alleles!

Answer 343

The likelihood that a particular event will occur. Example: When you flip a coin, there are two possible outcomes. The probability of either outcome is theoretically equal, so the probability that a single coin flip will land heads up is 1 out of 2, ½, or 50%.

Answer 344

crossing of one trait

Answer 345

crossing of two traits

Answer 346

Dominant : Recessive3:1

Answer 347

dominant for both traits : # dominant for first trait but recessive for second : # recessive for first trait but dominant for second : # recessive for both traits9: 3: 3: 1

Answer 348

Homozygous dominant (HH) : heterozygous (Hh) : homozygous recessive (hh)1 : 2 : 1

Answer 349

RRYY:RRYy:RrYY:RrYy:RRyy:Rryy:rrYy:rrYy: rryyDom,Dom: Dom,Het: Het,Dom: Het,Het: Dom,Rec: Het,Rec: Rec,Dom: Rec,Het: Rec,Rec1:2:2:1:4:1:2:2:1

Answer 350

Foil to get something likeAaBb to ----> AB Ab aB ab

Answer 351

One allele is not completely dominant over another Result = a different phenotype, a sort of “blend”RWC^RC^WRR’

Answer 352

BOTH phenotypes are clearly expressed(human blood types demonstrate codominance!)Result = both traits clearly visible together, stripes/spots/multiple proteins/etc.RWC^RC^WRR’

Answer 353

A gene that has more than just two allelesEx. There are three alleles for human blood type (A, B, & O)So, human blood type exhibits codominance and multiple alleles!

Answer 354

Red blood cells carry antigens which trigger an immune response. There are two types of antigens, A and B. People with type A blood have the A antigen, type B people have the B antigen, type AB have both, and type O have neither. Both A antigens and B antigens are clearly expressed and are written IA and IB while having no antigens is written i.

Answer 355

There are also “+” vs. “-” blood types!Rh is just another antigen on RBCs!

Answer 356

A gene for a trait is found on the X or Y chromosomesGenes on Y - only found in malesRecessive alleles found only on X - trait is more likely in males*assuming XX vs XY chromosomes, and not any other combinations!**

Answer 357

A trait is controlled by two or more genes.Often results in a range/spectrum of phenotypes!!Ex: height, skin color, eye color

Answer 358

In humans all (or nearly all) of our mitochondria come from the cytoplasm of the ovum (egg cell)!Thus, offspring typically have identical mitochondrial DNA to their mother!

Answer 359

Environmental conditions can affect gene expression!Phenotype depends on genes + environmentSIAMESE CAT WITH TEMPERATUR SENSITIVE

Answer 360

Pro:singular, circularin cytoplasmEu:multiple, linearmorein nucleus

Answer 361

DNA is tightly coiled around histones, which form nucleosomes

Answer 362

duplicated chromosome with supercoiled chromatin

Answer 363

Storing information:Genetic infoCopying information:Prior to division (during S phase) it has to be copied!Transmitting information:Genes are inherited from one gen to the next

Answer 364

Nucleotides

Answer 365

Double-strandedDouble helix (linear in euk, circular in pro)Monomers = nucleotides5’ to 3’ directionality 5’ = phosphate end3’ = OH endAntiparallelHydrogen bonds between bases

Answer 366

“Chargaff’s Rule”# of A=T# of C=G# of purines = # of pyrimidines

Answer 367

Adenine with thymine (2 H bonds)Guanine with cytosine (3 H bonds)

Answer 368

Monomers of DNAComposed of three chemical groups:5 Carbon Deoxyribose SugarCarbons are numbered for biochemical identification purposes Phosphate Attached to the 5’ deoxyribose carbon1 of 4 Nitrogenous bases

Answer 369

Eukaryotic DNA has ends Prokaryotic doesn’t because it is stored as a circular chromosome. These ends can be degraded over time, leading to gene loss.Eukaryotes have “caps” of long nonsense DNA sequences called telomeres to protect against DNA degradation. Many scientists speculate that telomere loss is associated with aging in eukaryotes.

Answer 370

Describes the flow of information in a cellDNA-->RNA-->ProteinProteins carry out cell functions, which is expressed as a physical trait*.

Answer 371

Each copy of the DNA will have one template (old) strand and one newly synthesized strand.

Answer 372

Initiation, Elongation, Termination

Answer 373

Topoisomerase (A) relaxes the supercoiled DNA near the origin of replication. DNA Helicase (B) breaks the hydrogen bonds between the template strands. Strands are kept from re-annealing (fancy word for binding) by single stranded binding proteins (C).

Answer 374

Primase puts down RNA primers to help DNA polymerase actually bind to the template DNA StrandDNA Polymerase binds and synthesizes the new strands from 5’ to 3’.Replication on the leading template strand is continuous. Replication on the lagging template strand is discontinuous

Answer 375

RNA primers are removedDNA ligase fills in the gaps from the primer removal and between the Okazaki Fragments.End result: Two Identical Copies of the DNA

Answer 376

sequence of DNA that codes for a particular protein

Answer 377

Sugar usedT vs UDouble vs single stranded

Answer 378

tRNAmRNArRNA

Answer 379

T-shaped structure made of RNA nucleotides. Amino acids are attached on the top, and the anticodon is on the bottom loop.Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for carrying amino acids to the ribosome during translation and transferring them on to the growing polypeptide (amino acid) chain.

Answer 380

Single stranded sequence of RNA nucleotides.Messenger RNA (mRNA) is an RNA copy of a gene that carries the instructions for producing a specific protein from the nucleus to the ribosome.

Answer 381

Sequence of RNA nucleotides that bind to ribosomal proteins in order to form the whole ribosome. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a structural component of ribosomes that assists with translation of messenger RNA .

Answer 382

PROKARYOTESOccurs in the cytoplasmNo processing requiredEUKARYOTESOccurs in the nucleusProcessing required before leaving nucleus

Answer 383

Certain DNA sequences right before genes, where proteins bind to initiate transcriptionTFs = regulateTranscription factors

Answer 384

puts RNA nucleotides together in a growing chain using DNA strand as a templatealso unzips DNA like Helicase!makes RNA strand in 5’ to 3’ direction!

Answer 385

Specially modified guanine nucleotide that is added to the 5’ end of the transcript. It protects the mRNA from degradation in the cytoplasm and also helps the ribosome to bind at the the mRNA start codon to initiate translation.

Answer 386

Sequences of mRNA that actually code for part of the protein.

Answer 387

Sequences of mRNA that exist between exons and allow for alternative splicing.

Answer 388

A series of A nucleotides added to the 3’ end of the transcript. It aids in nuclear export ,protects the mRNA from degradation in the cytoplasm, and also helps the ribosome to bind at the the mRNA start codon to initiate translation.

Answer 389

modified guanine nucleotide

Answer 390

aids in nuclear export

Answer 391

protects from degradation, help ribosome to bind

Answer 392

Alternative splicing, or alternative RNA splicing, or differential splicing, is an alternative splicing process during gene expression that allows a single gene to code for multiple proteins. In this process, particular exons of a gene may be included within or excluded from the final, processed messenger RNA (mRNA) produced from that gene.[1] This means the exons are joined in different combinations, leading to different (alternative) mRNA strands. Consequently, the proteins translated from alternatively spliced mRNAs will contain differences in their amino acid sequence and, often, in their biological functions

Answer 393

Eukaryotic translation occurs on ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or those found free-floating in the cytoplasm.

Answer 394

three bases in mRNA that code for a particular amino acid

Answer 395

Initiation, Elongation, Termination

Answer 396

Large and small subunit of the ribosome bind to the start codon. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA (aided by interaction with rRNA) The tRNA that matches the start codon (AUG) base pairs, followed by the large ribosomal subunit binding.

Answer 397

The ribosome reads the mRNA in sequences of 3 nucleotides called codons.Ribosome translocates from codon. At each codon the matching tRNA binds to the mRNA, transfers its specific amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain

Answer 398

Ribosome continues translating until it reaches the stop codon. Translation of the stop codon results in a release factor protein binding to the ribosome, causing it to release both the mRNA and the newly synthesized polypeptide

Answer 399

Genes on the same chromosomes can “break” the law of independent assortment The closer together they are, the most likely they are to be “linked”Unlikely to be split apart during crossing over in Meiosis I

Answer 400

Alleles get independently assorted

Answer 401

Crossover frequencies can be converted into map units.We can use the frequency of crossing-over to determine the relative distance between genes on the same chromosome.

Answer 402

Shows presence or absence of a trait according to relationships within a family across generations

Answer 403

every individual with the trait must have a parent with itwithout any other context, shading = AA or AaExample = Huntington’s disease

Answer 404

individual with the trait may or may not have a parent with itwithout any other context, shading = aaNon-shaded could be AA or Aa!Example = Sickle Cell Anemia

Answer 405

females are more likely to show dominant traitsshading = XAXA, XAXa, XAYExample = X-linked hypophosphatemia (XLH)

Answer 406

males are more likely to show recessive traitsshading = XaXa, XaYNon-shaded could be XAXA, XAXa, or XAYExample = Red-green colorblindness

Answer 407

A change in the genetic material

Answer 408

Gene mutationChromosomal mutation

Answer 409

Location of gene or DNA sequence

Answer 410

From gametes

Answer 411

Not gametes

Answer 412

normal protein

Answer 413

a change in one base pair of the sequence

Answer 414

Silent, Missense, Nonsense

Answer 415

Has no effect on the protein sequence

Answer 416

Results in an amino acid substitution

Answer 417

substitutes a stop codon for an amino acid

Answer 418

A deletion or insertion of bases can cause a frameshift

Answer 419

Spontaneous Mutationserrors in DNA replication, etc.Induced Mutationscaused by mutagens

Answer 420

Sickle Cell Disease, Huntington’s Disease

Answer 421

Single gene mutation (point - substitution)Hemoglobin-Beta gene on chromosome 11Autosomal recessive“Heterozygous advantage”

Answer 422

Insertion of “CAG” repeats in gene for a protein in brain neuronsChromosome 4Autosomal dominant

Answer 423

A human karyotype shows 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.

Answer 424

Could happen in M1 or M2If in M1 then no normal cellsIf in M2 then half normal cellsIs improper splitting of chromosomes

Answer 425

An abnormal number of chromosomes

Answer 426

Having more than two complete sets of chromosomes Relatively common in plants, but rare in animals!

Answer 427

In females, one X chromosomes is “switched off” and forms a Barr Body

Answer 428

A trait in which a homozygous dominant individual does not survive.This affects probability estimates!