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PSYCHOLOGY 104 > TOPIC 8: MEMORY > Flashcards

TOPIC 8: MEMORY Flashcards

1
Q

Predominant view of memory

A
  • a form of information processing; applies metaphor
  • comprised of different structures (sensory,short-term, &long-term memories) and processes (encoding,storage, &retrieval)
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2
Q

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968):

A

The Modal Model

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3
Q
  1. Sensory Memory
A

Sperling (1960):
Part I:
Part II:

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4
Q

part I:

A

flashed matrix of letters on screen for 50 ms:

  • total recall rate: ~50%
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5
Q

Part II:

A

matrix flashed on and off / delay / tone presented

  • brief delay: tested recall for desired row ~100%
  • accuracy declined as delay increased
  • implied complete image was temporarily stored
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6
Q

Iconic memory

A

very accurate, very brief visual sensory memory

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7
Q

echoic memory

A

auditory-based sensory memory

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8
Q
  1. Short-Term Memory (STM)
A

George Miller (1956): STM capacity

  • measured withdigit-span task - STM capacity = “The Magical Number seven, Plus or Minus Two”

However, more recent work (Baddeley, 1994; Cowan, 2001) puts practical STS capacity at four, plus or minus one.

  • chunking
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9
Q

digit-span task

A

list of numbers presented; recite them in the order of presentation

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10
Q

chunking

A

combining items into meaningful units reduces amount to be remembered
- applied in acronyms

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11
Q

Peterson & Peterson (1959; also Brown, 1958)

A

STM duration
- subjects given three consonance and a three-digit number

- during retention interval, had to count backwards by 3s
- after a certain amount of time, recall the three letters
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12
Q

results of the Peterson and Peterson

A

STM fades in less than 20 seconds withoutmaintenance rehearsal

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13
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repeating the stimuli

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14
Q

Alan Baddeley (1976):

A

working memoryview of STM emphasizes processing of memories

  • phonological loop
  • visuospatial sketchpad
  • episodic buffer
  • central executive
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15
Q

phonological loop

A

stores sound-based information

  • has phonological store & subvocal rehearsal process
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16
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

for solving problems “in your head”

  • has visual cache & inner scribe
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17
Q

episodic buffer

A

temporary storage to/from LTM; also integrates information from other components

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18
Q

Central executive

A

attentional control system

  • for coordinating the other functions
  • switches between tasks, storage or retrieval strategies
  • also transfers memory to/from LTM
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19
Q

Serial Position Effect

A
  • shows functional division between STM and LTM
  • primacy
  • recency
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20
Q

primacy

A

earlier words recalled (are in LTM); due to greater rehearsal (Atkinson & Schiffrin, 1971)?

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21
Q

recency

A

later words recalled (are in STM); delaying test wipes out recency

  • middle words may receive interference from both earlier and later words
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22
Q
  1. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
A
  • capacity virtually unlimited

- duration may be unlimited–for some items, not all

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23
Q

•Levels of Processing(Craik & Lockhart, 1972):

A
  • gave participants list of words to remember
    • different groups encoded words differently
      • shallow encoding
      • intermediate encoding
      • deep encoding
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24
Q

• shallow encoding

A

based on appearance

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25
Q

• intermediate encoding

A

based on sound

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26
Q

deep encoding

A

based on meaning

  • deeper processing enhances encoding
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27
Q

•elaborative rehearsal

A
  • when encoding new memories, relate them to existing memories
  • aids inmemory consolidation
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28
Q

memory consolidation

A

formation of long-term memories

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29
Q

•self-reference effect

A
  • the more meaningful some information is toyou, the more likely you are to remember it
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30
Q

•visual images

A
  • words that form visual images remembered best (i.e., concrete nouns vs. abstract concepts)
  • words that form visual images remembered best (i.e., concrete nouns vs. abstract concepts)
  • explained bydual coding theory
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31
Q

dual coding theory:

A

memory enhanced if encoded by meaningandimages

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32
Q

•mnemonic devices

A

techniques to aid memory, often by visually associating to-be-remembered items with a known series of images

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33
Q

method of loci:

A

associate each item with locations in a familiar place (e.g., a “memory palace”)

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34
Q

peg-word system:

A

relate each item to a word that rhymes with a number (e.g., one is a bun, two is a shoe, etc.)

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35
Q

Storage

A
  • spread of activation

- semantic (orassociative)networks

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36
Q

•semantic (orassociative)networks:

A

related concepts in memory are interlinked

37
Q

spread of activation:

A

thinking about one concept causes other, related concepts to become activated or “primed”

38
Q

Types of Long-Term Memory

A

explicit (ordeclarative)memory

•implicit (ornondeclarative)memory

39
Q

explicit (ordeclarative)memory

A

conscious, intentional remembering of knowledge or an event

  • episodic
  • semantic
40
Q

implicit (ornondeclarative)memory

A

unconscious retention in memory due to previous experience

  • procedural
  • conditioning
  • priming
41
Q

episodic:

A

life events

42
Q

semantic:

A

general knowledge

43
Q

-conditioning:

A

e.g., classical or operant

44
Q

-priming:

A

presentation of a stimulus affects response to a subsequent one

45
Q

-procedural:

A

skills, abilities

46
Q

types of amnesia:

A
  • retrograde amnesia

* anterograde amnesia

47
Q

•retrograde amnesia

A

inability to rememberpastepisodic memories

48
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to formnewexplicit memories

49
Q

Retrieval

A
  • recall
  • recognition
  • isolation effect.
50
Q

recall

A

reproducing previously encountered information from memory

51
Q

recognition

A

identifying previously learned information

52
Q

isolation effect

A

a distinctive stimulus will be better remembered

53
Q

“flashbulb” memories:

A

especially strong, vivid, and detailed memories associated with unexpected, emotionally charged events

54
Q

repeated recall:

A
  • immediately following an emotional event, record a person’s experience and memories
    • compare these to a surprise reassessment at a later time
55
Q

are memories for saliant events and surroundings better then those for everyday events?

A

yes.

56
Q

encoding specificity principle:

A

memory retrieval is enhanced when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions

57
Q

-context- dependent memory:

A

depends on matching external cues

58
Q

results of the Godden & Baddeley (1975): does context matter?

A
  • recall best when retrieval context retrieval learning context
59
Q

state-dependent memory:

A

depends on matching internal states

60
Q

•forgetting curve

A

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885):

61
Q

results from Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885):

A
  • forgetting is rapid at first, then more gradual
  • why? Nonsense is hard to remember
  • also, recall depends on amount of time spent learning the list
62
Q

•spacing effect

A

Underwood (1970):

63
Q

Underwood (1970):

A
  • participants practiced list of 42 nouns four times
  • massed practice
  • distributed practice
64
Q

•massed practice:

A

information repeated in one long session

65
Q

•distributed practice:

A

information repeated in separate sessions, with time in between

66
Q

pseudoforgetting

A

information was not encoded in the first place, so was not forgotten

67
Q
  • decay theory:
A

memories fade with time

68
Q
  • interference theory:
A

memories compete with each other

69
Q

decay:

A

performance will decline with time equally in both groups

70
Q

interference:

A

sleep group will perform better than awake group

71
Q

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924): results

A
  • sleep group had better recall

* implies that interference is responsible for forgetting

72
Q

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924):

A
  • subjects learned nonsense syllables
  • tested after certain retention interval, up to 8 hours
  • one group slept, other stayed awake
73
Q

retroactive interference:

A

new info makes it harder to remember older info.

74
Q

proactive interference:

A

already-learned info makes it more difficult to remember new info.

75
Q

misinformation effect

A

information given after an event can distort the memory

76
Q

misinformation effect:

A

information given after an event can distort the memory

77
Q

Loftus:

A

memory is reconstructive; it is a “rebuilding” of reality, not an exact copy

78
Q

ohnson & colleagues (1993):

A

source monitering:

79
Q

source monitering

A

making attributions about the origins of memories, knowledge, or beliefs

80
Q

source failure:

A

not knowing the source of a memory

81
Q

source confusion:

A

misattributing the source of a memory

82
Q

repression:

A

active submerging of a painful memory without conscious awareness

83
Q

Freud (1901):

A
  • considered repression to be the most powerful defense mechanism used by the ego to reduce anxiety
    • notconfirmed experimentally
84
Q

false memory syndrome:

A

memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false, but in which the person strongly believes it to be true

85
Q

Loftus & Pickrell (1995):

A
  • participants were made to believe they had been lost in a shopping mall
    • parents and family members kept reintroducing the topic into conversation
    • researchers kept asking questions about the (false) event
    • participants were initially uncertain about these memories, but gradually became more sure
86
Q

results form the Loftus & Pickrell (1995):

A
  • 29% of participants “remembered” false events

* some even provided additional details about the eventthat never happened

87
Q

Karl Lashley (1950): Where are memories stored?

A
  • trained rats to run a maze, then removed sections of brain
  • performance gradually deteriorated as more brain removed
  • could not localize theengram (the physical trace of a memory)
  • complex memories must be distributed
88
Q

Eric Kandel & colleagues (1971): How are simple memories stored?

A
  • studied Aplysia californica (sea slug): has large, few (20,000) neurons
    • examined learning via habituation: decrease in response to a stimulus due to repeated stimulus presentation
    • conditioned the gill withdrawal reflex: stimulation of siphon causes gills to be withdrawn into the body
    • repeated jets of water produced habituation that lasted several hours
    • however, multiple daily sessions produced change in behaviour that lasted weeks
    • studied synapse between siphon sensory neuron and motor neuron for gill withdrawal
    • found that more neurotransmitters was released
    • other studies found increased sensitivity in postsynaptic neurons, requiringless neurotransmitter to be released
89
Q

what does sensory memory allow?

A

the transfer of information to STM

PSYCHOLOGY 104 (10 decks)

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