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SK299 > Topic 2 - Cells & Cancers > Flashcards

Topic 2 - Cells & Cancers Flashcards

1
Q

What 3 things do all cells have in common?

A

A cell membrane
Cytoplasm
DNA

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2
Q

What does the nucleus of the cell contain?

A

DNA

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3
Q

What are the two categories of cells?

A

Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic

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4
Q

What is a cell?

A

The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

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5
Q

What are all cells surrounded by?

A

A plasma membrane

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6
Q

What are the three main ways cells can be connected?

A

Tight junctions
Anchoring junctions
Gap junctions

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7
Q

What are the features of tight junctions?

A

They form fluid-tight seals which act as a barrier to fluid loss
They have limited permeability
They prevent molecules from passing through the intracellular space

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8
Q

What is special about gap junctions?

A

They allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell, to enable intercellular communication

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9
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

The cycle of events in eukaryotic cells from one cell division to the next

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10
Q

What are the phases of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase
Mitosis
Cell division

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11
Q

What can happen if a cell can no longer control mitosis normally?

A

Tumours may form

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12
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of cells which all perform the same function

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13
Q

What are the four types of bodily tissue?

A

Epithelium
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

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14
Q

What types of cells are there?

A 
Epithelial
Support (eg cartilage, bone)
Adipose
Contractile (smooth muscle, skeletal muscle)
Nerve 
Gametes
Blood
Immune system cells
Hormone-producing cells
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15
Q

What does the morphology (structure, appearance) of a particular cell tell us?

A

Its specific function

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16
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Cells which are able to divide, differentiate and replace specialised cells which are damaged/old

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17
Q

What are the two types of stem cell?

A

Adult

Embryonic

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18
Q

How are adult stem cells described and what does that definition mean?

A

As being multipotent, which means they can generate many tissue-specific cell types

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19
Q

How are embryonic stem cells described and what does that definition mean?

A

Pluripotent, which means they can generate cells of any type in the body

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20
Q

What is the difference between endothelial and epithelial cells?

A

Epithelial cells line both internal and external surfaces but endothelial cells line internal surfaces of components of the circulatory system

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21
Q

What are endothelial cells?

A

Cells which line the interior surface of blood and lymphatic vessels

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22
Q

What are epithelial cells and where are they found?

A

A type of cell which lines every surface of the body

Found on skin, blood vessels, urinary tract, organs

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23
Q

What is an allele?

A

The dominant form of a given gene

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24
Q

What is a genotype?

A

Genes which are responsible for a particular trait (eg eye colour)

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25
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The physical expression of the genotype (eg blue eyes)

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26
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

An individual’s collection of chromosomes

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27
Q

What does autosomal mean?

A

A non sex-related chromosome

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28
Q

What is a nucleotide?

A

A building block of RNA/DNA

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29
Q

What are the components of a nucleotide?

A

Phosphate
Sugar (ribose/deoxyribose)
A base

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30
Q

What are the bases?

A

Adenine
Cystine
Guanine
Thymine (Uracil instead of thymine in RNA)

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31
Q

Which base is different in RNA?

A

Uracil replaces Thymine

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32
Q

What are amino acids?

A

Organic compounds which combine to form proteins and are vital for certain functions (eg protein synthesis, tissue repair)

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33
Q

Why are amino acids vital?

A

They are key to certain physiological functions such as protein synthesis and tissue repair

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34
Q

What is transcription?

A

The process which makes an RNA copy of a gene sequence

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35
Q

What is translation?

A

The process of creating proteins from an mRNA template

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36
Q

What is tRNA?

A

Temporary carriers of amino acids

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37
Q

What is a ribosome?

A

An organelle which is involved in protein synthesis

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38
Q

Where are ribosomes found?

A

Freely floating in cytoplasm, or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

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39
Q

What are the two main stages of cell division?

A

Interphase

Mitotic phase

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40
Q

What does eukaryotic mean?

A

That the cell has a nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles

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41
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

The process by which ATP is made

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42
Q

What is transcription and translation?

A

Transcription is the production of mRNA molecules from the DNA template
Translation is the production of encoded protein from the mRNA

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43
Q

What is a macromolecule? Give an example of one

A

A molecule containing a large number of atom

Proteins, nucleic acids, synthetic polymers

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44
Q

What determines the folding and shape of a protein?

A

It’s amino acid sequence

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45
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and a range of organelles

Prokaryotic cells only have ribosomes

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46
Q

A plasma membrane surrounds which type/s of cells?

A

All cells

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47
Q

Are human cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

A

Eukaryotic

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48
Q

What can happen if a cell can no longer control mitosis normally?

A

Tumours can form

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49
Q

What are ribosomes?

What do they do?

A

Organelles found in the cytosol

Manufacture proteins

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50
Q

What is an organelle?

A

Part of the cell which performs a specific function (effectively a cell organ)

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51
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

The structure where ribosomes are made

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52
Q

What is the Golgi Apparatus?

What does it do?

A

An organelle which processes and packages proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell
It also builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines)

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53
Q

What are vesicles?

A

Membranous sacs which are usually involved with the transport and secretion of molecules

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54
Q

What are lysosomes?

What do they do?

A

Specialised vesicles containing enzymes

Their purpose is to digest things

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55
Q

What are mitochondria?

What do they do?

A

The powerhouse of the cell

They generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical reactions

56
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

What does it do?

A

A network of membranes within the cytoplasm of the cell
SER acts as a storage organelle, important in the creation and storage of lipids and steroids
RER is important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins

57
Q

Why is the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) rough?

A

Because it is studded with ribosomes

58
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum’s function?

A

It plays a central role in the synthesis of proteins

59
Q

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum’s function?

A

It is involved in the synthesis and storage of lipids

60
Q

Where are ribosomes made?

A

In the nucleus

61
Q

What is the lipid bilayer?

A

A membrane composed of phospholipid molecules

62
Q

How is the lipid bilayer composed?

A

Two layers of phsopholipid molecules; the tails all point inwards and the heads outwards

63
Q

Why do phospholipid heads point outwards?

A

They are hydrophilic

64
Q

Why do phospholipid tails point inwards?

A

They are hydrophobic

65
Q

What is an ion channel?

A

A specialised protein in the plasma membrane which provides a way for charged ions to cross it

66
Q

What is the purpose of the plasma membrane?

A

To maintain the integrity of the cell
It also keeps the cytosol (internal fluid) and organelles (suspended objects) separate from the extracellular environment

67
Q

What determines the fluidity of the plasma membrane?

A

The composition of lipids and how much cholesterol is present

68
Q

What determines the permeability of the plasma membrane?

A

The types of proteins present

69
Q

What happens in the G_0 phase of the cell cycle?

A

The cell is quiet at this point

70
Q

What happens in the G_1 phase of the cell cycle?

A

The cell synthesises mRNA and proteins in preparation for mitosis

71
Q

What happens in the S phase of the cell cycle?

A

DNA is replicated and two complete copies are produced

72
Q

What happens in the G_2 phase of the cell cycle?

A

The new cell is checked to ensure it is not defective
Organelles multiply
Extra protein is synthesised
Materials (eg lipids) for the membrane may be produced

73
Q

What happens in the M phase of the cell cycle?

A

The cell divides into two daughter cells

74
Q

What does amphipathic mean?

A

To have dual polarity

75
Q

How do CO2 and small molecules cross the plasma membrane?

A

By diffusion

76
Q

How do ions or larger molecules cross the plasma membrane?

A

Proteins facilitate them crossing as they are too large for diffusion

77
Q

What are the two main qualities of the plasma membrane?

A

Fluidity

Permeability

78
Q

How does primary active transport work?

A

Chemical energy (eg ATP) is used to move molecules over a membrane against their gradient

79
Q

What is secondary transport?

A

Transport via the concentration gradient that is created by primary active transport

80
Q

What is meant by the term “simple diffusion”?

A

Passive diffusion of ions/molecules via specific proteins (channels, carriers, transporters)

81
Q

What do symporters do?

A

Transport molecules/ions across the phospholipid membrane in the same direction as the concentration gradient

82
Q

What do antiporters do?

A

Transport molecules/ions across the phospholipid membrane in the opposite direction to the concentration gradient

83
Q

What is cytoplasm composed of?

A

Cytosol (fluid within the cell)

Cell organelles

84
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

The process of moving materials from within a cell to the exterior of a cell

85
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

The process of moving materials from outside a cell to within it

86
Q

Aside from proteins, what other substances are exported out of a cell by exocytosis?

A

Waste products

87
Q

What is meant by the term “facilitated diffusion”?

A

The passive transport of molecules or ions across the plasma membrane, via specific proteins (channels, carriers, receptors)

88
Q

What are the two reasons solutes are able to diffuse across the plasma membrane?

A

A concentration gradient exists across the membrane

The solute can pass freely across the membrane

89
Q

What is a concentration gradient?

A

A process which is used for moving particles from an area of higher concentration in a solution to an area of lower concentration

90
Q

Why are concentration gradients important?

A

They allow for the movement of solutes and gases by diffusion

91
Q

Is ATP required in the process of simple diffusion?

A

No

92
Q

What is ion channel diffusion?

A

Transport across cell membranes which occurs due to ion channels within the membrane

93
Q

What is carrier-mediated diffusion?

A

Diffusion across the plasma membrane which is facilitated by carrier proteins such as glucose

94
Q

Roughly how much of a cell’s energy is spent in maintaining a concentration gradient across the plasma membrane?

A

About 45%

95
Q

What is the sodium-potassium pump?

A

A specialised type of transport protein which is found in the cell membrane

96
Q

What are the ratios of sodium and potassium which are transported by the sodium-potassium pump?

A

3 sodium ions out for every 2 potassium ions brought in

97
Q

What is the purpose of the sodium-potassium pump?

A

It underlies most of our cellular processes

98
Q

What powers the sodium-potassium pump?

A

ATP

99
Q

How does the sodium-potassium pump work?

A

Sodium ions bind to the pump
A phosphate group from ATP attaches to it, causing it to change shape
The pump then releases 3 sodium ions
It binds to 2 potassium ions
The phosphate group detaches, causing the pump to release the 2 potassium ions into the cytoplasm

100
Q

What is the alternative name for the sodium-potassium pump?

A

Sodium-potassium ATPase

101
Q

The sodium-potassium pump is an example of which type of cellular transport?

A

Primary active transport

102
Q

How do carrier mediated proteins work?

A

They change shape to faciliate diffusion of solutes across the cell membrane

103
Q

What is ATP composed of?

A

Ribose (a pentose sugar)
Adenine (nitrogenous base)
Three phosphate groups

104
Q

What are the products of ATP being broken down?

A

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

A single phosphate group

105
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

The process of adding a single phosphate group to an existing molecule in order to prepare it to change or do work (eg the addition of phosphate to ADP in order to form ATP)

106
Q

Where in the body might you find epithelial cells?

A

The lining of the digestive tract and blood vessels

The outer layer of skin

107
Q

Give some examples of places in the body you might find support cells

A

Fibrous support tissue
Cartilage
Bone

108
Q

Where in the body might you find adipose cells?

A

Under the skin

Around organs

109
Q

Where in the body might you find contractile (muscle) cells?

A

Skeletal muscle
Heart muscle
Smooth muscle

110
Q

Where in the body might you find neurons?

A

Brain

Spinal cords

111
Q

Where in the body might you find gametes?

A

Eggs/sperm

112
Q

Where in the body might you find blood cells?

A

Circulating red and white cells

113
Q

Where in the body might you find immune system cells?

A

Lympoid tissues (lymph nodes, spleen)

114
Q

Where in the body might you find hormone-producing cells?

A

Thyroid/adrenal glands

Pancreas

115
Q

What are the properties of (cellular) tight junctions?

A

They form a fluid-tight seal, enabling entire sheets of cells to join together
This acts as a barrier to fluid loss

116
Q

What are the properties of (cellular) anchoring junctions?

A

They join tissues subjected to stretching or friction

117
Q

What are the properties of (cellular) gap junctions?

A

They bring cell membranes close together, meaning small molecules can pass directly from the cytosol of one cell into the cytosol of another cell

118
Q

What must first happen to the genetic material contained in a cell before it can divide and form two new cells?

A

The chromosomes must be duplicated so that each new cell contains a full copy of the genome

119
Q

What is meant by the term “somatic cell division”?

A

The type of cell division where daughter cells are identical to the parent cell

120
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

The part of the cell division process where the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides and forms two daughter cells

121
Q

In the human cell cycle, at what stage does cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) occur?

A

During anaphase and continues through telophase

122
Q

What is prophase?

What occurs at this stage of the cell cycle?

A

The first stage of cellular replication

The parent cell chromosomes condense, the nucleolus disappears, the mitotic spindle starts to form

123
Q

What is metaphase?

What occurs at this stage of the cell cycle?

A

The second stage of cell division

The chromosomes align with the middle of the cell, ready to divide

124
Q

What are the two main phases of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

Mitotic phase

125
Q

What events occur during the S phase of cellular reproduction?

A

The DNA within the cell is replicated, producing two complete copies of the cell

126
Q

What are the four main phases of mitosis?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

127
Q

For someone aged over 50, roughly how long does it take for the epidermis to renew itself?

A

Up to 84 days

128
Q

What structures are you likely to find in the dermis layer of skin?

A 
Sebaceous glands
Hair erector muscles
Sweat glands
Lymphatic vessels
Hair follicle
129
Q

How are cells in different layers of skin distinguished from one another?

A

By the level of their content of keratin (increases toward the surface)

130
Q

What are the two types of stem cells?

A

Adult

Embryonic

131
Q

Are adult stem cells multipotent or pluripotent?

A

Multipotent

132
Q

What does multipotent mean (in reference to stem cells)?

A

Stem cells which are able to generate multiple, tissue-specific cell types

133
Q

What does pluripotent mean (in reference to stem cells)?

A

Stem cells which are not limited to generating cell types of a particular tissue, but which can generate cells of any type within the body

134
Q

What are induced pluripotent stem cells?

A

Stem cells which are generated in research laboratories using cells harvested from adults and that have been “reprogrammed” to become pluripotent

135
Q

What is the epidermis?

A

The surface layer of the skin

SK299 (15 decks)

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